VAISHALI, Bihar

Main Attraction: Remains Of Lichhavis Republic

Set amidst lush paddy fields, 55 km north of Patna, lies the quiet hamlet steeped in legend, Vaishali. Named after King Visala, it was the capital of the Lichhavis, and is believed to be one of the earliest republics of the world, having an elected body of representatives and an efficient administration, as early as 6th century BC. Vaishali is significant to both Buddhists and Jains. Lord Buddha preached his first sermon, and announced his impending Nirvana, here. To commemmorate the importance of the site, Emperor Ashoka erected one of his famous pillars. Vaishali is also the birthplace of Lord Mahavira.

Brief History

This district derives its name after Vaishali or modern Basarh, a village in the north-west corner of the district, situated 32 Kms north west of Hajipur. It has been identified as the birth-place of Mahabir, the 24th Jain Tirthankar. It was also the capital of the powerful confederacy of the Lichchavis. The district is bounded on the north by Muzaffarpur district, on the south by Patna district (the Ganges forming a natural boundary), on the east by Samastipur district and on the west by the district of Saran.

Early History

Little is known about the original inhabitants of this ancient land of North Bihar. History of the district dates back to the rise of the Vrijjian Republic which replaced the Videhan monarchy. The centre of power also shifted from Mithila to Vaishali, the capital of the republic, which is identified with modern Basarh. The Vrijjian Republic was a confederation of eight clans, of which the Lichchavis were the most important. They gradually gained strength and came in conflict with the powerful kingdom of Magadh, Bimbisar (Circa 519 B.C.), the founder of the Magadh Empire, had secured his position by concluding matrimonial alliance with the neighbouring states of the Kosalas and the Lichchavis. Bimbisar was assassinated by his son Ajatsatru, who afterwards invaded Vaishali and extended his way over Tirhut.

Vaishali was a centre of religious renaissance Lord Mahavir, the founder of modern Jainism, was born in about 599 B.C near Valishali. Like Lord Buddha, he also came of an aristocratic family. His father was the Chief of the Nata or Naya clan of Kshatriyas. Mahavir became an ascetic at the age of 30 and revived the religion founded by Parsvantha.

Lord Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavir. It is said that when Vaishali was in the grip of a devastating plague, its people exhorted Buddha to pay a visit. On his arrival at the city, the fury of the pestilence was greatly reduced and this miracle won him a good many disciples. Although, Vaishali was the birth-place of Mahavir, it was influenced more by Buddhism. Even at a much later date, many stupas and sevreal Buddhist monasteries were found here by travellers including Hiuen Tsang. Even after the defeat of the Vrijjians by the Magadh emperor, Ajatshatru Vaishali continued to be and important place. The second great synod of the Buddhists was held here.

Vaishali appears to have gradually lost its glory after the Buddhist synod. Not much is known about it for the next several centuries. The Lichchavis, who had acknowledged the suzerainty of Magadh, ruled over the area. Vaishali was visited by Ashoka who got a stupa and a lion pillar erected here.

The Kushan King, Kanishka, invaded Vaishali in about 120 A.D. Fa-hien, the Chinese pilgrim visited the place during his tour of India, but he did not leave any detailed account of the place. A description of Vaishali appears in the travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang, who visited it about 635 A.D. according to this, the people were honest and religious and respected the learned. Hiuen Tsang say many deserted monasteries, some of which were in ruins. There were many Jains indicating that Buddhism was on the decline in that period. 

Medieval Period

There is a great dearth of material on the history of North Bihar including Vaishali from the visit of Hiuen Tsang till the rise of the Pala dynasty. In the 8th century A.D. Gopala, the first of the Pala kings, became the ruler of Bengal. He extended his authority over Bihar in about 750A.D. The Palas continued to have their hold over Tirhut until 1019 A.D. When the Chedi kings of Central India established their sway. They were replaced towards the close of the 11th century by the rulers of the Sena dynasty. Lakshman Sena was powerful king of his dynasty.

Muslim Period

Ghias-ud-din Iwaz, the Governor of Bengal between 1211 and 1226, was the first Muslim invader of Tirhut. He subdued the Raja of Tirhut and extorted tributes from Him. Iwaz, however, could not succeeded in conquering the country. It was only in 1323 that Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak succeeded in establishing his sway over the district. Hajipur, which had great strategic importance due to its situation at the confluence of the rivers Gandak and Ganga, was the seat of the Governors. Being under their direct control, the district has a number of relics of the Muslim period. The town of Hajipur itself was founded by Haji Illyas, king of Bengal from 1345 to 1358. He invaded Tirhut and, to consolidate his conquest, built a fortress at Hajipur. Feroz Tughlaq of Delhi marched to Tirhut in 1353 to punish Haji Illyas for his attempt at taking over the Emperors domain. The Haji was ultimately defeated and the Emperor returned to Delhi.

The whole North Bihar appears to have passed into the hands of the kings of Jaunpur towards the close of the 14th Century. It remained under them for about a hundred years until Emperor Sikander Lodi of Delhi defeated the king of Jaunpur and retrieved the territory. After his victory over the king of Jaunpur, the Emperor advanced against Hussian Shah in 1949, who by that time had extended his power over large tracts in Bihar. Hussain Shah found in difficult to resist the imperial forces and therefore he came to agreement with the Emperior and concluded a treaty with him at Barh. According to the terms, Hussain Shah withdrew from Bihar, Tirhut and Sarkar Saran while the Emperor agreed to desist from interfering with his possession in Bengal. 

But the kings of Bengal could not for long resist the temptation of extending their power over Tirhut. Nasrat Shah, son of Hussain Shah, raided Tirhut in the early 16th century not withstanding the earlier treaty concluded by his father. The Raja of Tirhut was killed and the king’s son-in-law, Alauddin was appointed Governor of Tirhut. Nasrat Shah also took over Hajipur and put another son-in-low, Makhdoom Alam there. The power of the kings of Bengal was, however, waning and, with the fall of Mahmood Shah, North Bihar including Vaishali, became a part of the Mughal Empire. Though the entire North Bihar had been annexed, the control way very loose and petty chieftains continued to be powerful. 

When Daud Khan, the king of Bengal, raised the banner of revolt in 1574, he founded aband of ready supporters in the Afghans. Daud Khan had his stronghold at Patna and Hajipur. It was only after a fierce fight that the Mughals defeated Daud Khan. After the fall of the Afghan king, a separate Subah of Bihar was constituted and placed under a Mughal Governor. Tirhut which included Vaishali formed part of this Subah. The chieftains who had helped the Emperor were rewarded with grants of Jagir in Sarkar Hajipur. They settled down with their retinue. With the transfer of the headquarters of the Governor from Hajipur to Patna, the former lost its importance.

British Period

With the British victory at Buxar in 1764 Vaishali passed, with the rest of Bihar, under the British rule. After establishing their authority the English took steps to strengthen their hold. In the initial stages their chief interest was trade. In course of time, however, they emerged as rulers and succeeded in subduing the entire district. There was no event of great consequence in the district uptil the movement of 1857. The success of the insurgents at Delhi caused great concern to the English inhabitants in the district. In June, 1857 some of the soldiers (from amongst those who had revolted) came back home and became quite active. This caused considerable alarm to the European Community. The movement was ultimately crushed and the district remained undisturbed for quite some time.

The political awakening in the country in the period after the First World War stimulated nationalist movement in Vaishali district also. During the Non-Co-operation Movement, and later on during the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-31, the district responded widely to the call of Mahatma Gandhi. During the ‘Quit-India Movement’ in 1942 the district was in full fury. The district played a prominent role in the country’s struggle for freedom.

KOLHAPUR, Maharashtra

Main Attraction: Shahuji Chhatrapati Museum

‘Shahuji Chhatrapati Museum’, named after Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj of Kolhapur is the most prominent destinations of the city. Established in the year 1881, this museum is housed on the ground floor of the ‘New Palace Building’ of the Maharaja Palace. Shahuji Chhatrapati Museum is especially exalted for its wide collection of antique articles that earlier belonged to the royalty of Kolhapur.

The museum houses numerous possessions of Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj including costumes, jewellery, embroidery, weapons, games, silver elephant saddles, guns, trophies, artifacts, paintings, sculptures and other still art materials that represent the court life, and so on. The exteriors of the museum are surrounded by stunning gardens, a marvelous lake and a zoo that further add to the charisma of the place

Brief History

Kolhapur is one of the oldest cities in the country. It derives it importance from its past political association and its position as a great commercial historical religious and education centre. As a religious centre Kolhapur derives its appellation of Kashi of the south from the imposing ancient temple of Mahalakshmi also known as Ambabai. It is said to have been built by King Karnadeva of Chalukya Kingdom around 550 AD to 660 AD and embellished by the Silahara rulers of Kolhapur in the 9th century which represents the best Hindu architectural model of its kind.

According to ‘Puranas’ this tract of the country was originally called ‘Kurvir’ from the godessMahalakshmi wring her mace (Kur) in lifting her favoured retreat from the waters of the great deluge. According to another legend the name ‘Kolhapur’ is derived from the story that a demon ‘Kole’ (Kolhapur) was defeated and killed on a hill in the vicinity of Kolhapur. Fresh light has been thrown by the recent theory put forward by Prof.G.H. Khare. According to him the name might have been evolved by its geography. The original Kannada word ‘Kolla’ or ‘Golla’ (river bed) must be the source as the Kolhapur is situated on the bank of river Panchganga. Before the temple of Mahalakshmi was built, there appears to have been six centres of habitation or hamlets. 

The separate existence of these six centres vanished after building of Mahalakshmi temple, which became the centre of Kolhapur city. The history of Kolhapur can be broadly divided into three periods —early Hindu period reaching about A.D. 1347.— Muslim period lasting from A.D. 1347 to about A.D. 1700 and Maratha period since 1700. Around A.D. 500 Kadambas must have been succeeded the Andhrabhrtyas whose capital was at Palasika about 150 Kms south-east of Kolhapur. After the Kadambas the Kingdom was passed to the Chalukyas, Rastrakutas, Western Chalukyas, Kolhapur Silaharas and finally to the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Soon after the overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi Sultan in A.D. 1347 this area came under the Bahamani King of the Deccan and after the the Kings of Bijapur. The heroic conquests by the Shivaji of various forts held by Adilshah of Bijapur in the neighbourhood of Kolhapur like Panhala and Vishalgad in 1659, increased the commercial and also political importance of Kolhapur. Many wars have been fought at Vishalgad and Panhala by Shivaji and Adilshah of Bijapur. After the death of Shivaji Aurangzeb captured Panhala and Vishalgad at the beginning of 18th century but he could not hold them for a long time because the second son of Shivaji, Rajaram who had succeeded his father after the death of his elder brother Sammbhaji took up Panhala fort which was for many years the virtual capital of Kolhapur State. 

In 1782 the seat of Government was moved from Panhala to Kolhapur. The accession of RajarshiShahuChhatrapati to the throne when he was only ten years old.laid the foundation of a new modern era. His rule lasted 38 years from 1884 to 1922 and his authority extended to higher levels of socio-economic activities. During his rule he touched every aspect of social and economic life of his subjects.

In 1884 Kolhapur as a state had the following six subdivisions viz., Karvir, Panhala, Shirol, Ajra, Gadhinglaj and Bhudargad. In addition it had two petasRaybad under Shirol and Katkol under Gadhinglaj. In the year 1948, the Kolhapur state was merged with the Indian Nation. With the reorganization of states, the district was included in Bombay state in 1956. It forms a part of Maharashtra since 1960.

VARANASI, Uttar Pradesh

Main Attraction: Ghats of Ganga

Ghats of Ganga are perhaps the holiest spots of Varanasi, are full of pilgrims who flock to the place to take a dip in the holy Ganges, which is believed to absolve one from all sins. There are number of temples on the bank of the Ganga river in Varanasi. It is believed that people are cleansed physically, mentally and spiritually at Ganga Ghats. It is at the Ganga Ghats where we see life and death together. For thousands of years people have been thronging these Ghats to offer their morning prayers to the rising sun. Varanasi has at least 84 ghats. Some of the prominent and popular Ghats are the Dasaswamedh Ghat, Manikarnika Ghat, Panchganga Ghat, Harischandra Ghat, Kabir Ghat and Assi Ghat. The Ganga Ghats of Varanasi that complement the concept of divinity

In Hindu traditions, cremation is one of the rites of passage and the Ghats of Varanasi are considered one of the auspicious locations for this ritual. At the time of the cremation or "last rites," a "Puja" (prayer) is performed. Hymns and mantras are recited during cremation to mark the ritual. The Manikarnika and Harishchandra Ghats are dedicated to the cremation ritual. Ganges Aarti at Dashashwamedh Ghat is very popular. A group of priests daily perform in the evening at this ghat "Agni Pooja" (Worship to Fire) wherein a dedication is made to Lord Shiva, River Ganges, Surya (Sun), Agni (Fire), and the whole universe.

Brief History

Varanasi one of the ancient cities and seat of learning in India is located on the left bank of the most sacred river Ganga. Varuna and Assi are the two streams bounding it from north and south. The city seems to have acquired its name from the combination of the names of these two streams and the district has been named after it. In medieval times, this name was corrupted to Banaras and it remained as such till May 1956, when it was changed to Varanasi. Being a great religious centre of Hindus, it is visited by millions of people every year and so is the reason that it finds a mention in several ancient sacred texts like Purans, Mahabharat and Ramayana. 

Besides Hinduism, Buddha and Jain dharma have also flourished on this sacred place. Sarnath, hardly 12 kms, from the city is the place where Lord Buddha preached his first sermon revealing the eight fold path that leads to the attainment of inner piece enlightenment and ultimate Nirvana. The district was originally a part of Kashi kingdom Pururavas Alia, the grandson of Manu, is said to be the founder of the earliest dynasty that ruled over this district. It acquired the ancient name Kashi, after the name of the seventh king of this dynasty, the Kasha. A few generations later there ruled a king named Dhanvantari who has been identified in Yayu Puran as the founder of Ayurveda, the indigenous system of medical treatment (the Pancham Veda).

According to Hindu mythology, in Satyug, the king Satya Harish Chandra with his wife sold himself to Dom Raja at Kashi, to pay the Dhakshina to Rajarshi Vishwamitra . In Dwaper,in Mahabharat, it is stated the Bhisma Pitamah took forcibly the three daughters of Kashi Naresh to wed their step brothers, but one of them known as Shikhandi denied and after sometimes she became the cause of death of Bhisma Pitamah during Mahabharat war.

At the end of Maunas kingdom the Banaras kingdom came into power, which was one of the sixteen Mahajanpadas of Bharatvarsha. Before the birth of Lord Buddha, nearly about in 6th century B.C. its capital was Varanasi, which is situated between Varuna and Assi. In the reign of Ajatshatru, it was merged with Magadh empire. Kashi Naresh participated in Mahabharat war. Varanasi city is the holy and oldest city among the ancient towns of world. It has been a centre of learning since long time. Its name is found in Puana, Mahabharata and Ramayana. It is a sacred place of Hindu as well as of Bouddh and Jain.

Kashi kingdom was however dominated by Barhadratha dynasty of Magadh during the century preceding the war but Post-Mahabhartha period saw the rise of Brahmdatta dynasty. About hundred kings of this generation are said to have had their supremacy over this region. Some of these rulers have amassed so much of power that they aspired to become Chakravorty Emperor. King Manoja of Kashi brought the kingdom of Kaushala, Anga and Magadh in his possession and annexed their territories to his empire. In Jain scriptures have described the greatness of Ashva Sena, a king, of Kashi whom they recognized as the father of Tirthankara Parshwa. Subsequently, in the ninth century BC, the Brahmadatta dynasty was subdued by the Nagas. 

Gradually, during the eighth and seventh centuries BC, the kingdom of Kashi had completely lost its vigour and power and consequently it was tossed between Kaushala and Magadh in this duration. However, in the midst of such a situation, Varanasi attained a new importance in the cultural history of India when Lord Buddha delivered his first sermon after achieving enlightenment at Gaya. It was the place where is the first Sangha of sixty monks was founded who were later on sent in different direction for propagation of Buddha Dharma.

Bimbhsara of Magadh conquered Kaushala at about the third quarter of Sixth century BC but it came into more prominence at the time of the great emperor Ashoka the third in this line. In Sarnath, Ashoka built a hundred feet high Dharma Rajjika Stupa, probably on the spot where Buddha preached his first sermon. The famous Dharma Chakra pillar surmounted by a lion capital of great beauty was also created by him. This emblem has now been adopted by the government of India as the national emblem. 

Later on Kushans, Nagas Nand, Vansha and Mauryas also held their supremacy over this region before the advent of Gupta Empire which ruled over this region nearly two centuries (320-540 AD). It was the Gupta period, when this region was most prosperous and the glory of the state spread far and wide and innumerable images depicting a glimpse of fine art and sculpture were made during these days. In the first half of the seventh century Kashi formed an integral part of Harshvardhana reign.

Following the death of Harshvardhana in the latter half of the seventh century, there was a chaos in whole of the northern India. Consequently from the middle of ninth century till 1027 A D it remained under the control of Gurjaras and Pratihars before they were thrown away by Mahmud of Gazani. Consequently effect of this episode led to anarchism in the region which was later on put to an end by Gahadawal dynasty. The rule of independent Hindu dynasty in Varanasi had virtually come to an end during 1194-1195 AD, when it fell into the hands of Mohammad Ghauri after the defeat of Jaichandra of Gahadaval dynasty. 

In l322 Varanasi was governed from Zafarabad in Jaunpur during the region of Mohammed Bin Tughlaque. Then for a short while this region became a centre of reformists activities in religion and social spheres. In 1526 Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated in the battle of Panipat and Humaun the son of Babar occupied this region. Humaun was, however, defeated in the battle of Chausa by Sher Khan. Akbar the great Mughal Emperor is said to have reached Varanasi in 1556 and conferred the three Sirkars of Baranas, Jaunpur and Ghazipur on Munim Khan after taking them away from Ali Quli Khan. The area continued to be administered by various governor appointed by Mughal Emperor. 

In 1738 Mansaram, a Gautam Bhumihar and Jamindar was given the administration of Sirkars of Varanasi, Jaunpur and Chunar by Sadat Khan – Subedar of Avadh. The administration passed on to his son Balwant Singh after his death. In 1775 the Kashi kingdom had come under the influence of British Empire. Later he had on confrontation with Warren Hastings, the Governor General who installed Mahip Narain Singh, son of Balwant Singh’s daughter as successor to Chit Singh. The last king of this generation was Vibhuti Narain Singh who ruled for about eight years till the country attained its independence when Banaras state was merged with India. On 25-05-1997, eastern part of Varanasi district, comprising the three tahsils Sakaldiha, Chandauli and Chakia, was cut off from it and a new district named Chandauli was creatied. 

In 1911, Banaras got the status of state. After independence when all the states of India merged with Union of India, Banaras state was also merged in it. During the period of Maharaja Udit Narain Singh, Gyanpur was a pargana of Mirzapur district and before 1911 Bhadohi was made district of Banaras state.

MON, Nagaland

Main Attraction: An “Angh”

The motif represents a Konyak Naga Chief “Angh” in traditional dress used generally on ceremonial occasions like “Aoling Moh”. One of the most spectacular features of their dress as seen in the motif is the colourful head gear “suosuok”. It is made of colourful cane “Yantak” and orchid bark “Nyen” which gives a red and yellow stripe. The black hair “yiang kongmei nyei” used on the headgear is from a very rare animal in Nagaland. 

Two wild boar tusks are fixed on the front of the headgear which signifies bravery. The necklaces are of very precious beads and stones “yuknyu”. But the most interesting among the necklaces is the one with the symbolic human head called “yanshuo”. The one seen here has also a row of tiger teeth “Sah bha” hanging on each side of the shoulder.

Brief History

The name of the district Mon originated from the name of the District headquarter, namely, Mon, now an urban area and the administrative centre of the District.  

For a long time, the inhabitants of the state of Nagaland who are mainly the Nagas, covering under it various nomenclatures of different tribes and sub-tribes, mostly remained isolated from the neighbouring people on account of the geographical isolations under which they were living for centuries. Each tribe has its own area of land. Their past lives were woven entirely around their own land, their families, the clan, the khel (part of a village), and the village. The villages are generally constructed at the most commanding position on the hill tops basically for better climate and for advantageous defence position against the attack of the invading enemies which were very frequent when head hunting and disputes over land etc. were rampant in the past. Isolation from each other made the life style of the different Naga communities different from each other.

They had a self-sufficient village economy. They could make useful and artistic objects, are efficient in iron works and skilful in making baskets and other bamboo products and could make pottery articles without the use of the potter’s wheel. Their custom and dress differ from one another and this can be evident from the pattern of the clothes and the textiles worn by them till today during festivals and ceremonies. The textiles are woven by the women themselves on their simple loin looms but the designs are intricate and very artistic. The weapons consisted generally of daos (machetes) and spears. According to the Linguistic Survey of India, the languages spoken by the Nagas are broadly grouped under the Tibeto-Burman family. There are many dialects one different from the other. The dialects vary not only from one tribe to another tribe but also from one hill range to another hill range and in some cases from one village to another village within the same tribe. The physical features also differ from one tribe to another tribe.

Mon District is predominantly inhabited by people belonging to Konyak tribe. Like all other Nagas, Konyaks have Mongoloid features. They are on an average shorter in height but their lives are very active. The people are generally healthy, well-built and muscular in form and the older males wear tattoos on their face and body. Konyaks are adept artisans and skilled craftsmen. Here one can find excellent wood carvings, daos (machetes), guns, gunpowder, head brushes, headgear, necklaces, etc. made by these artisans and craftsmen. They also weave wonderful designs on their handwoven shawls. The most colourful festival of the Konyaks, "Aoling Monyu", is observed during the first week of April every year after sowing of seeds.

Majority of the people have now embraced Christianity and it has in fact, become the cohesive bond between the Nagas. Though the primary objective of the early Christian Missionaries was to spread Christianity in the area, the Missionaries were also responsible for giving the primary light of education to the people. The Nagas in general were at one point of time in constant fight with each other and the one who had the maximum skulls of his enemies was considered the mightiest and most

powerful. Konyaks still decorate their houses with skulls, hornbill beaks, elephant tusks, horns and wooden statues.

The Konyaks have a male dominated society and the laws of inheritance are basically among the males. Property goes from father to son and if a man dies without leaving a son, his property will go to his brothers or brother’s son as the case may be. The villages were generally built on the highest hills and fortified for defence.

In the past, Konyaks had powerful Chiefs or Anghs. Their words at one time were law. The authority or title of the Chief in a village is hereditary in the past. Village chiefs used to be the man who was responsible for the maintenance of harmony in the village, protection of their customary laws and procedures and the defence of the village from the hands of the invaders. The role of the village elders in the day-to-day affairs of the village was very important. The houses of the Chiefs were generally distinguished by their extra size. In modern times, however, this hereditary system has been gradually replaced by a system of elected/nominated representatives forming a Village Council headed by a Secretary/Chairman.

FIROZPUR, Punjab

Main Attraction: HARIKE LAKE AND WETLAND

Harike Lake and Wetland is situated in the district of Firozpur in the state of Punjab. A barrage built in 1953 on the confluence of rivers Sutluj and Beas near Harike town resulted in the creation of Harikelake. Over the course of time, this wetland system, the largest in north India, emerged as a fine waterfowl habitat. It was declared a bird sanctuary in 1982 and a Ramsar Site in 1990. In 1992 the sanctuary area was enlarged to 86 sq. km. 

Harike lake constitutes the main reservoir which is the deeper portion of the wetland adjoining the barrage, while the marshy islands and shores together with the extensive wetlands stretching beyond the reservoir area, comprise the rest of the wetland. The lake is triangular in shape, with its apex in the west, a bund, called the Dhussi Bund forming one side, a canal the second and a major road the third.

Brief History

Not much is known of the early history of Firozpur district. This may partly be due to the river Sutluj shifting its course constantly leaving behind ruins and mounds of earth called Theh. The vagary of the river has, however, made a strong impact on the character of the people, making them virile and turbulent and inured to hardships. The Rajput tribes from the neighboring Rajasthan were among the early known invaders of the territory. The Punwar Rajputs appears to be earliest with their capital at Janer, followed by Bhati Rajputs, about the time the muslims established contacts with India. 

The Bhatis settled south of Muktsar and continued pushing the Punwars northward. The various branches of Bhatis fanned out towards east and west, the Dogars and Naipals to the west towards. Pakpattan and the Manj Rajputs to the east towards Kot Ise Khan and Raikot. Two ruling branches of the Manj Rajputs embraced Islam towards the close of the thirteenth century. Firozpur town was named after their chief, Feroze Khan, the chief of Manj Rajputs, but more reliable sources maintain that it was founded by Feroze Shah Tughlak.

Some two centuries after the immigration of the Bhatis the Jat tribes, namely, Dhaliwals, Gills and Sidhus appear to have made inroads into the territory from the south and south-east and gained possession of various areas. One tribe worthy of mention from among these Jats is Sidhu Barars who came from the same stock as the Bhati Rajputs. They founded the chieftainship of Kot Kapura and were the forefathers of the ruling families of the Faridkot State and the Phulkian States of Patiala, Nabha and Jind. Most of the Jat tribes accepted the Sikh faith in the seventeenth century. 

In due course they took advantage of the tottering Mughal Empire for strengthening their positions. Thus when Guru Gobind Singh was in flight from Chamkaur Sahib in 1705 A.D., the Chief of Kot Kapura, though a Sikh, did not offer him shelter against the Mughal pursuers, and the Guru went to Muktsar and from there to Deccan. In the meantime, the Dogars had begun to make depredations eastward from Pakpattan side where they had emigrated earlier. They pushed the Manj Rajputs southward, and established themselves for about a hundred miles along the Sutluj. However, they could not hold for long against the rising power of the Sikh Misls which took them under their sway.

Religious persecution was hammering the Sikhs into a number of staunch and warrior Misls whose common aim was to fight out the Mughal tyranny. In 1760, they inflicted defeat on the Mughal Governor of Lahore. Three years later, Hari Singh, the chief of Bhangi Misl, sacked Kasur, and one of his Sardars named Gujjar Singh crossed the Sutluj and took possession of Firozpur and made over the fort and surrounding territory to his nephew, Gurbakhsh Singh. The dogars gave him a lot of trouble but ultimately he was able to break their resistance and added to his territory a sizable area on both sides of the Sutluj. Near about 1792, while partitioning his possessions among his sons, Gurbakhsh Singh gave the fort and territory of Firozpur to his second son, Dhanna Singh. He did not prove to be a strong ruler. 

Thereupon a favourite Sardar of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Nihal Singh Atariwala, crossed the Sutluj and hemmed in Dhanna Singh’s territory from all sides. It was the time when the British East India Company was giving protection to the Trans-Sutluj chiefs, and no sooner Dhanna Singh asked for it, the protection was readily given. Ranjit Singh was thus restrained from extending his influence east of the Sutluj. Dhanna Singh died in 1818-19 leaving his widow Lachman Kaur as his successor. The widow died in 1835. She had no issue and the territory passed to the British. The British were yet busy in restoring peace and order and consolidating their position in the area when the First Sikh War broke out in December, 1845.

It is rightly said that the battle for Punjab was fought in Firozpur district. The intrigues and jealousies of the Sikh Darbar left no time with it to give correct direction to the overflowing energies of the brave Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singh, and more to exhaust itself out than for any other purpose, it was allowed to cross the Sutluj and to fight the British.

The first engagement took place at Mudki and Lal Singh, the Sikh Commander, left his men when the victory was in sight, and had the 7,000 odd British troops who had fallen into the hands of the Khalsa Army been destroyed, the subsequent history of Punjab, and possibly of India, would have been different.

Similarly at Firozpur it was only the treachery of the Sikh Commander, Teja Singh, who left the battle field when the victory was within an ace of achievement, which averted a sure defeat for the British. The Sikh Army was all the time let down by its commanders. The next Sikh Commander, Ranjit Singh, defeated the British in the next battle at Buddiwal, but was himself defeated at Aliwal.

The treaty of Lahore was signed in 1845. As a result, the British acquired, inter alia, all the territory east of the Sutluj. The territory was divided among the districts of Firozpur, Badhni and Ludhiana, The Firozpur district getting the ilaqas of Zira, Mudki, Khai and portions of Kot Kapura, Guru Har Sahai, Jhuma, Kot Bhai, Bhucho and Maharaj. In 1847, the Badhni district was dissolved and the ilaqas of Mallanwala, Makhu, Dharamkot, Kot Ise Khan, Badhni, Chuhar Chak, Mari and Sade Singhwala were added to Firozpur district. Sultan khan wala was taken in exchange from Faridkot state. In 1852, portions of the ilaqa of Muktsar and Kot Kapura were added to the district. In 1856, The Nawab of Mamdot was deposed as a result of his and his son’s atrocities and misdeeds, and his estate was attached to district Firozpur. 

Two Regiments of Native Infantry were stationed at Firozpur and Fazilka in 1856-57. They revolted but timely action of the local British Officers did not allow them to do much damage. The native Light Cavalry also rose in revolt but with the help of the artillery manned by the Britishers, they too were overwhelmed. The emissaries succeeded in spreading the flames of revolt in Fazilka side, the Britishers were able not only to suppress the revolt, but also to send succour to the besieged garrison at Delhi. Sant Sham Dass who had rallied some 4,000 adherents round him was defeated near Jaitu or Saidoke. He was captured and executed.

PALAMU, Jharkhand

Main Attraction: PALAMU FORT

The fort built by king Pratap Ray who belonged to Chero tribe under Palamu district is famous as Palamu Fort.

The ruins of this historical fort is located at 27 km from Medninagar and 5 km from Betla National Park the bank of Auranga River.

The history of 300 years of Palamu is interlinked with this fort. So decayed this fort looks from outside but it is grand and gracious from inside. The fort is 750 feet long and 450 feet wide and the height of the walls is 25 feet. There is 8 feet wide workable road on the walls. Even today the 40 feet high large and grand maingate of the fort is safe which is built in Mughal style.

At the artificts of Chero period are present in fading conditions. There are two large wells in the fort having tunnels within and entering through which the 150 feet deep bottoms of the wells can be reached even now

Brief History

Daltonganj town is the headquarters and the principal town of the district situated on the Koel river. The town has taken its name after Colonel Dalton, Commissioner of Chotanagpur in 1891.

Early History

The early history of Palamu is shrouded in legends and traditions. Since the district consisted mostly of forest tracts the territory seldom engaged the attention of invading armies, and the area remained outside the pale of influence of empires which were established in other parts of modern Bihar. The area was probably inhabited by autochthonous tribes in the past. The Kharwars, Oraons and Cheros, three oboriginal races practically ruled over this tract. Inscriptions and other relics which have been found indicate a fairly developed civilization inspite of the jungles and comparative inaccessibility of the area. 

The Oraons had their headquarters at Rohtas Garh in the then Shahabad district (which included the present district of Kaimur and Rohtas) and there is every indication that for sometime a portion of Palamu was ruled from the headquarters of Rohtas Garh. The Cheros reigned in Palamu for nearly 200 years and the most famous of the Chero rulers was Medni Rai who according to tradition made himself lord Paramount of the southern portion of Gaya and of large portions of Hazaribag and Sarguja (in Madhya Pradesh). His son, Pratap Rai built a fort at Palamu separate from the fort that had been built by his father.

Prior to the domination of Palamu by the Cheros, Rakshel Rajputs held sway over the district. They in turn, had supplanted early Marhatta settlers of whom, however, no trace is to be found now. They have probably been assimilated in the indigenous population.

A factual history of Palamu, begins from the first half of the 16th century. In 1538 Sher Shah Suri had sent one of his officers to control the turbulent chiefs and free the Grand Trunk Road from their clutches who used to exploit the travellers. The Mughal influence extended to Palamu during the reign of Emperor Akbar when it was invaded by Raja Mansingh in 1574. The troops left by him were, however, driven out in 1605 when Akbar died. In 1629, Emperor Shahjehan appointed Ahmad Khan as the sufedar of Patna. Palamu was conferred to him as his Jagir. 

Ahmad Khan imposed tax to the tune of Rs.1,36,000. The non-payment of this mandatory tax by Chero rulers of Palamu led to three successive attacks by the Mughals. The first invasion took place in the reign of Pratap Rai. The Mughal army was led by Shaista Khan the Governor of Bihar. The army reached the fort of Palamu, defeated Pratap Rai and compelled to pay tax of Rs.80,000. The second invasion was called by internal bickerings. As a result of this Pratap Rai after negotiations agreed to pay an annual tax off Rs. One lakh only On the recommendation of Itaikad Khan, successor of Shaista Khan, Emperor Shahjehan gave Palamu to him as a military chief on a jama of Rs. 2.5 lakhs.

Despite two invasions the payment of tax by Chero Chiefs were never  regular. As a last resort, Daud Khan, Governor of Bihar, left Patna with a strong force in 1660 and in spite of heavy drawbacks and difficult terrain, reached within three kilometers of palamu. There was an engagement and fighting which lasted three days, after which the fort was captured. Palamu was then placed in charge of Muhammadan Faujdar. But this system was done away soon and Palamu was placed under the direct control of the Viceroy of Bihar in 1660. Palamu was again invaded by Subedar Sarballand Khan. But actual fighting was warded off by the payment of one lakh of rupees in cash and in the shape of diamonds.

British rule

As in some other districts here also the British intervened at others' invitation. The circumstances leading to the stablishment of Bihar rule in Palamu sowed the seed of disaffection and enmity between the dispossessed Cheros and their new masters. The first intervention of the British in the affairs of the Chero Raj of Palamu occurred in 1772 owing to the protracted internecine quarrels between two rival Chero factions (1722-70). Two candidates claiming to be the rightful Raja, one Gopal Rai, grandson of Jaikishun Rai, the other Chitrajit Rai, grandson of the murdered ruling chief Ranjit Rai, brought their suits to the British. The British, more interested in revenue collection than in family quarrels, decided to occupy the fort of Palamu. As Chitrajit's Dewan, Jainath Singh, refused to agree to this even in return for recognition of Chitrajit's claim, the controlling council at Patna decided to support the cause of Goapl Rai. 

The fort was occupied by the British in February, 1771 and Gopal Rai was installed as the ruler on the agreeing to pay an annual tribute of Rs. 12,000. Gopal Rai was however, removed after trial in 1776. There followed a scramble for power. Bishwanath Rai, his minor brother, succeeded him while Gajraj Rai became the manager. But their position was assailed by Sugandh Rai, and Sheo Prasad Singh. However, Gajraj Rai could continue due to the support of the Collector of Ramgarh. Meanwhile in 1780 Daljit Rai, brother of Chatrapati Rai, attempted to revive the fortune of the house of Medni Rai. The Governor ordered that Bishwanth Rai, the third brother of Gopal Rai and not Gajraj or Sugandh, was the successor to the gaddi. Since this order was resisted Major Grawford was sent to Palamu with military force to restore peace. Major Crawford managed to capture Gajraj and Sugandha. Raja Bishwanath Rai died in 1783. he was followed by Churaman Rai who came of age in 1793.

Churaman Rai succeeded in resuming the estate of his weaker tenants. His action provoked the tenantry, and led to the Chero insurrection in 1800. The leader was Bhukhan Singh, a Chero. The British came with a force and suppressed the insurrection but by that time the Raja and the administration had been reduced to bankruptcy. An Assistant Collector of Bihar was apointed to look after the revenue collection in the western part of the province. Parry, the Assistant Collector who took over in 1811 made the first settlement of revenue in 1812. he annulled the Sanad, granted by Churaman Rai and took over direct collection. The Palamu estate was attacked. In 1812, the sale of Palamu estate was authorized and it was accordingly sold for Rs. 51,000 against arrears amounting to Rs. 65,000. The assessment of the estate was reduced to Rs. 9,000 in 1814 when it was granted to Ghanshyam Singh of Deo as a reward to his help to the British in suppressing the Cheros and the Kharwars.

In 1813 there was a rising organized by great Jagirdars. This led to the attachment of the estates of Chainpur. Ranka, Lokaya, Bisrampur and Obra. The Kok rebellion of 1832 had its impact in Palamu also. The Cheros and the Kharwars rose against the administration, and non-tribal Hindus and Muslims. The insurgents were, however, defeated in an engagement with the British forces near Latehar.

1857 Movement

During the 1857 Movement, Palamu was the most severely affected district of the Chotanagpur plateau.

The brothers Nilambar and Pitambar were chiefs of Bhogta clan of the Kharwar tribe, who held ancestral jagirs. Immediately after they heard movement against the British rule they made up their minds to declare independence. They were joined by many Chero Jagirdars. On 21st October, 1857 a force of 500 persons was organised which was led by Nilambar and Pitamber. They attacked Raghubar Dayal at Chainpur since he had sided with the British. From there they proceeded to Leslieganj and caused heavy destruction. Lt. Graham, with only 50 persons at his disposal, could not do much to thwart the insurgents. The entire countryside appeared to be up in arms. Lt. Graham was besieged in the house of Raghubar Dayal. 

In December, two companies arrived under Major Cotter. He was able to capture Devi Baksh Rai, one of the principal leaders of the movement. In January Col. Dalton, the Commissioner of Ranchi himself came to Palamu and captured the Palamu Fort. Ultimately the insurgents were captured and peace was restored soon afterwards. It is noteworthy that the movement in Palamu was no mere sepoy mutiny but an uprising of the indigenous population of the district. Palamu played an important part in the freedom movement of the country. The Bihar Students’ Conference was held at Daltonganj in 1920 under the presidentship of Rev. C.F. Andrews. The participants included Mazharul Haque, Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Rajendra Prasad visited Daltonganj in 1927. The August disturbances in 1942 had their echoes in Palamu. The people of Palamu took active part in all the subsequent movements which led to the country’s independence.

AJMER, Rajasthan

Main Attraction: PUSHKAR FAIR

The most easily identifiable of Rajasthan's many fairs, Pushkar, has come to symbolise the heartbeat of the people in the state. It is held in the month of Kartik Poornima. Pushkar, the temple town is just 11 km. away from Ajmer. The fair is held in the vast stretching desert around the famous Lord Brahma Temple. The highlight of the fair is the trading of camels particularly of camels. It is probably the world's largest camel fair where camels are bought, sold, decked up and paraded on the sand dunes, presenting a picturesque sight. The camel, horse and donkey races are the events, which attract large gathering of people.

The Pushkar Fair brings together a large number of people from different parts of the country, which includes pilgrims and tourist who are on a pilgrimage or to enjoy the festivities of the fair.

Brief History

Geologically the hills around Pushkar and Ajmer City are one of the oldest in India. Recent finds of microliths at Khera and Kaderi indicate that human beings inhabited the area ever since the dawn of civilzation. Links of Mohanjodaro culture with Rajasthan have been detected and it is possible that the lead found in the shape of small dishes, plumb bobs and ingots was brought from Ajmer and the black and white schist used for weights were obtained from other parts of the Aravalli hills.

Fragments of painted gray ware, non-megalithic black and red ware and northern black polished ware have been found at Chosla (Kekri tehsil) and only non-megalithic black and red ware at Sameliya (Sarwar tehsil). On of the earliest Brahmi inscriptions of pre-Ashokan period has been found in the Bhilot Mata temple in village Badli (kekri tehsil). These finds substantiate the traditional stories connected with Pushkar and the part played by this area in the protohistoric period.

The references to Pushkar in Ramayana, Mahabharat and the Puranas as well as the coins of the period suggest that the local chiefs played a significant role in dealings with the invading Kushans, Sakas, etc., in the first five centuries of the Christian era i.e. till the rise of the Chauhans.

Though the origin of the Chauhans in the 6th century A.D. is variously given by eminent scholars like Col. Tod, Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar, Dr. R.C. Majumdar, Dr. Dasharatha Sharma, G.H. Ojha and others, the result of the exercise of giving a connected account of the ruling house for the next five centuries is pretty confused, and what we finally know for certain is the names of kings like Vasudev, Samant Raj, Durlabh Raj-I, Simha Raj, Vigraha Raj, Prithivi Raj, Ajai Raj, etc. who ruled upto the 12th century. It is only when we come to year 1192 A.D. and find Mohammad Ghori attacking Ajmer and defeating Prithviraj Chauhan that the clear picture of historical narration begins.

After defeating Prithviraj Chauhan, this district was made a part of the Islamic conquests of Delhi sultans in India. Qutub-ud-din Aibak inherited the Indian conquests of Ghori in 1206 A.D. After the death of Balban in 1287 A.D. most of the area of Ajmer district was regained by Hammir Dev Chauhan of Ranthambhor. In 1301 A.D. i.e. after Hammir’s defeat and death, the district again became a part of the Sultanate. In the last decade of the 15th century, it was in the hands of Mallu Khan, in 16th century. Akbar made Ajmer the capital of an important suba of the Mughal Empire.

Upto 1712 A.D. the district was under the Mughals and after that it came under the Rathors and the Marathas. In 1801 A.D. it came under the British rule, and Mons. Perron became the first subedar of Ajmer, and appointed Mr. Low its administrator. 

The district derives its name from the headquarter town of Ajmer. Before independence Ajmer-Merwara was an isolated province of British India in Rajputana. The town, Ajmer takes its name from Raja Ajai or Ajaya, a Chauhan prince of the 12th century A.D. but according to some scholars, from another Chauhan prince, Jayapala, of the early 7th century A.D.

TIRUNELVELI, Tamil Nadu

Main Attraction: COURTALLAM WATER FALLS

Courtallam waterfalls are located at Tenkasi Taluk of Tirunelveli District. Many seasonal and few perennial rivers such as the Chittar River, the Manimuthar River, the Pachaiyar River and the Tamirabarani River originate in this region. Courtallam has nine waterfalls. They are Peraruvi (main falls), Chitraruvi (small falls), Shenbagadevi falls, Thenaruvi(honey falls), Aintharuvi (five falls), Pazhathotta Aruvi, Pazhaya Courtalla Aruvi (Old Courtallam falls), Puli Aruvi (Tiger Falls) and there is another small falls inside the Government Horticulture Park above Five Falls.

These waterfalls provide an important tourist attraction and there is a famous health resort in Courtallam. The waterfalls flow from a height of 90 metres from top of the hills. The season commences from the month of June and ends in the month of September every year.

Brief History

The history of Tirunelveli was researched by Robert Caldwell (1814 91), a Christian missionary who visited the area. Tirunelveli was under the rule of Pandya kings as their secondary capital; Madurai was the empire's primary capital. The Pandya dynasty in the region dates to several centuries before the Christian era from inscriptions by Ashoka (304 232 BCE) and mention in the Mahavamsa, the Brihat-Samhita and the writings of Megasthenes (350 290 CE). The province came under the rule of Cholas under Rajendra Chola I in 1064 CE; however, it is unclear whether he conquered the region or obtained it voluntarily. Tirunelveli remained under control of the Cholas until the early 13th century, when the second Pandya empire was established with Madurai as its capital.

The Nellaiappar temple was the royal shrine of the later Pandyas during the 13th and 14th centuries, and the city benefited from dams constructed with royal patronage during the period. After the death of Kulasekara Pandian (1268 1308), the region was occupied by Vijayangara rulers and Marava chieftains (Palayakarars, or Poligars) during the 16th century. The Maravars occupied the western foothills and the Telugas, and the Kannadigas settled in the black-soil-rich eastern portion. Tirunelveli was the subsidiary capital of the Madurai Nayaks; under ViswanathaNayak (1529 64), the city was rebuilt about 1560. Inscriptions from the Nellaiappar temple indicate generous contributions to the temple. Nayak rule ended in 1736, and the region was captured by Chanda Sahib (1740 1754), Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan (1725 1764) during the mid-18th century.

In 1743 Nizam-ul-mulk, lieutenant of the Deccan Plateau, displaced most of the Marathas from the region and Tirunelveli came under the rule of the Nawabs of Arcot. The original power lay in the hands of the Polygars, who were originally military chiefs of the Nayaks. The city was the chief commercial town during the Nawab and Nayak era. The city was known as Nellai Cheemai, with Cheemai meaning "a developed foreign town". The Polygars built forts on the hills, had 30,000 troops and waged war among them. In 1755, the British government sent a mission under Major Heron and Mahfuz Khan which restored some order and bestowed the city to Mahfuz Khan. The Poligars waged war against Mahfuz Khan seven miles from Tirunelveli, but were defeated. 

The failure of Mahfuz Khan led the East India Company to send Muhammed Yusuf for help. Khan became ruler, rebelled in 1763 and was hanged in 1764. In 1758, British troops under Colonel Fullarton reduced the Polygar stronghold under Veerapandiya Kattabomman. In 1797, the first Polygar war broke out between the British (under Major Bannerman) and the Polygars (headed by Kattabomman). Some Polygars (such as the head of Ettaiyapuram) aided the British; Kattabomman was defeated and hanged in his home province of Panchalaguruchi. Two years later, another rebellion became known as the Second Polygar War. Panchalankuruchi fell to the British, after stiff resistance. The Carnatic region came under British rule following a treaty with the Nawab of Carnatic.

After acquiring Tirunelveli from the Nawab of Arcot in 1801, the British anglicised its name to "Tinnevelly" and made it the headquarters of Tirunelvelli District. The administrative and military headquarters was located in Palayamkottai (anglicised as "Palankottah"), from which attacks against the Polygars were launched.

KHARGONE (WEST NIMAR), Madhya Pradesh

Main Attraction: KHARGONE – MAHESHWAR

Maheshwar was a glorious city at the dawn of Indian civilization when it was Mahishmati, capital of King Kartivarjun. This temple town on the banks of the river Narmada finds mention in the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata Revived to its ancient position of importance by the Holkar queen Rani Ahilyabai of Indore.

Documented history states that the Holkar ruler, Malhar Rao captured the fort in 1733 and undertook some repairs and reconstructions. When his daughterin-law Ahilya Bai Holkar ascended the throne in 1767, she rebuild the fort as we see it today. The formidable walls of the Maheshwar Fort are pierced with five gates, of which two are more frequently used by the local population.

Brief History

Nothing is known about the origin of the name of Prant Nimar. The name, Nimar, is supposed to have been derived from nim(half), as the prant was supposed to be half way down the course of the Narmada, but in reality it is much nearer the mouth than the source of the river.

The territories now comprised in the district perhaps were in the kingdom of the Haihaya or Kalchuries, whose capital Mahishmati is identified with the town of Maheshwar. From 9th to 12th centuries most of the territories comprised in the district were ruled by the Parmar kings of Dhar as is apparent from inscriptions found at Mandhata and Harsud in Khandwa (East Nimar) district. 

The Mohammedans under Alauddin appeared in the district for the first time in 1294. Later Malik Kafur marched through the region in 1306. In 1370 Feroz Tughlak made over the district round about Khandesh and Nimar to an Arab adventurer. Since Malik Raja Faruki’s time the region became more or less subject to Mohammedan rule. From 1401, most of the district was held by the independent Mohammedan kings of Mandu and by Faruki kings of Burhanpur. Akbar included Nimar in the Subah of Malwa. In Aurangzeb’s days most of the Nimar was included in the Subah of Aurangabad. Towards, the end of 17th century, the Marathas entered the district carrying on their depredation as far as Dharmpuri in Dhar district. 

In 1720 the Moghul emperor granted to the Peshwa, the Chauth and Sardesh Mukhi on the Deccan province, which included Nimar. The death of Aurangzeb resulted in liquidation of imperial authority of Delhi and gradual strengthening of Maratha power over the Malwa region and hence over Nimar. In 1739, the Nizam was forced to agree to grant the complete sovereignty of the territories between the Narmada and Chambal to the Peshwa. This made Peshwa the ruler of the portions of the district north of Narmada. In 1751-52 by arrangement with Ghaziuddin, one of the sons of Nizam ul Mulk, all the southern Nimar was also passed absolutely to the Peshwa and by 1755 it was entirely in the hands of his officers. In 1751 Ramchandra Ballal Bhuskute was in charge of the tract. The district of this time had thirty-two mahals held by the Peshwa. 

Holkar and the Barwani and Dhar chiefs, though nominally it was all under the Peshwa. In 1768 the Holkar mahals (Sendhwa and Nagalwadi) were confiscated but were restored to Ahilyabai in 1769. In 1778 the district passed entirely into the hands of the Holkar, Scindia and the Parmar of Dhar except the Kasrawad Pargana which remained with the Peshwa. The period 1767 to1795, when Ahilyabai aided by her able commander-in-chief, Tukojirao ruled the district, was one of most prosperous periods for the district. Tukojirao also died two years after Ahilyabai and his death proved disastrous to the kingdom of the Holkars, as it gave rise to serious succession disputes between the sons of Tukojirao. Yeswantrao Holkar-I, a son of Tukojirao, emerged with success but the constant wars and raids lead to a fall in his success in the district till the last stage of the treaty of Mandsaur which was signed in January 1818, between the British and Malhar Rao Holkar. 

Group of Pindaries and the armies of Holkar and Scindia swept through the district and devastated the field and drove away its inhabitants. By this treaty, Mandleshwar, Kasrawad and some other portions of the district were passed on to the British. In 1823, by the treaty of Gwalior, the parts of the district held by Scindia were also placed under British management. The district (including the present East Nimar) under the British had its headquarters at Mandleshwar. Till 1947 the district (with the exception of most of the present Barwani and Rajpur tahsils and a small pocket in Maheshwar tahsil that was held by Dewas remained in the domain of the Holkars.

The district lies in a tract which has always been, historically important for its being on the easiest natural route that connects the northern and the southern parts of India. Most parts of the district were included, at different times, in the kingdoms of the early Haihayas of Mahishmati (now supposed by the most scholars as Maheshwar) the Parmars of Malwa and the Ahirs, Farukis and Chauhans of Asirgarh. Akbar in the subah of Malwa included Nimar, its territories being divided among the three sarkars of Bijagarh, Handia and Mandu. The greater part of the district lay in the Bijagarh Sarkar, the administrative headquarters being at the town of Jalalabad .In 1778, the Peshwa’s territory in Nimar roughly corresponding to the old Moghul Mahal of Banswa or Basina was sub-divided and bestowed by the Peshwa in jagir on the Maratha leaders Holkar, Scindhia and Pawar of Dhar except the tracts of Kasrawad, Kanapur and Beria (Beria Pargana).

PASHCHIM CHAMPARAN, Bihar

Main Attraction: VALMIKINAGAR

Formally known as BHAINSA LOTAN, it is a famous tourist spot where a dam is built on the river Gandak (Gandak Project). This dam and its channels are the lifeline of north-western part of Bihar. This channel also irrigates some portions of eastern U.P. This dam is also generating hydroelectricity.

This dam has been handed over to the nation by late Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru the then Prime Minister. For any tourist interested in exploring natural beauty, a visit to the sylvan surroundings of Valmilki Nagar is a must, where the gushing streams of Gandak break the ascetic calm of the Himalayan foothills.

Brief History

The name Champaran is a degenerate form of Champaka aranya, a name which dates back to the time when the district was a tract of the forest of Champa (Magnolia) trees & was the abode of solitary asectics.The whole district is dotted with places held in religious esteem as the traditional abodes of Hindu rishis, such as valmiki, in whose hermitage Sita, the banished spouse of Rama, is said to have taken shelter. 

This great sage is reputed to have resided near Sangrampur, and the village is believed to be indebted for its name (which means the city of the battle) to the famous fight between Rama and his two sons, Lava and Kusha. There is also a popular belief that within this district lay the kingdom of Virat mentioned in the Mahabharat as the tract within which the Pandavas spent the last year of their weary 12 years’ exile; and that its capital, where the five brothers resided a year, was situated at or near a village called Vairati, or Bairati 9 or 10 kms. west of Ramnagar.

Apart from these traditions, it seems probable that Champaran was occupied at an early period by races of Aryan descent and formed part of the country in which the Videhas has settled after their migration from the Punjab. According to the legend preserved in Vedic literature, Agni the God of fire, accompanied the Videhas in their march eastwards from the banks of the Saraswati, and when they came to the broad stream of the Gandak, they cleared the forest, cultivated the virgin soil and founded a great and powerful kingdom. This kingdom was in course of time ruled over by king Janaka, who is said by local legend to have lived at Chankigarh, known locally as Jankigarh, 17 kilometres north of Lauriya Nandangarh. Under his rule, according to the Hindu mythology, the kingdom of Mithila was the most civilised kingdom in India. King Janak, himself was a scholar and author of Upanishads, and his chief priest, Yajnavalkya was the renowned codifier of the Hindu law. 

After the decline of the Videha empire, the district formed part of the Vrijjian oligarchical republic with its capital at Vaishali. The Lichchhavis were the most prominent of the clans which constituted the Vrijjian confederation. Ajatshatru the emperor of Magadh succeeded in subduing the Licchhhavis and occupying their capital at Vaishali. He extended his sovereignty over the present district of Paschim Champaran which continued under the Mauryan rule for the next hundred years. Ashoka’s pillars have been found at Lauriya (Nandangarh). After the Mauryas, the Sungas and Kanvas ruled over Magadh and its territories. Archaeological evidences pointing to the influence of the Sunga and Kanva culture which have been found in the district.

The district thereafter formed part of the Kushan Empire and later came under the Gutpa Empire, though not much is known about the material culture of the district in that age. Alongwith Tirhut, the district was possibly annexed by Harsha during whose reign Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim visited India.

The history of the district during the medieval period and the British period is linked with the history of Bettiah Raj.

The District Gazetteer mentions the Bettiah Raj as a great estate. It traces its descent from one Ujjain Singh and his son, Gaj Singh who received the title of Raja from the Emperor Shah Jehan (1628-58). The family came into prominence in the 18th century during the time of the downfall of the Mughal Empire when one finds frequent references made by Muhammadan historians to the Rajas of Bettiah as independent chiefs. Thus, in the Riyazus-Salatin, the Raja is described as a refractory and turbulent chief, whose territory had never acknowledged the dominion of any of the Subahdars. 

In order to subdue this chief Ali Vardi Khan led an expedition against him in 1729, and brought him and his territory under subjugation. Subsequently, in 1748, the Raja seems to have entered into an alliance with the Afghan rebel chief of Darbhanga and given shelter to the members of his family during their revolt against the Bengal Viceroy; when the Afghans were defeated by Ali vardi Khan, he offered to atone for his contumacy with a contribution of 3 lakhs of rupees. In 1759 Caillaud advanced against the fort of Bettiah, and compelled the Raja to submit; in 1762 another expedition was sent against him by Mir Kasim Ali Khan and his fort was again captured; and in 1766 a third expedition under Sir Robert Barker became necessary to establish British authority.

At the time when Sarkar Champaran passed under British rule, it was in the possession of Raja Jugal Keshwar Singh, who succeeded Raja Dhurup Singh in 1763. This Raja soon came in conflict with the East India Company. He fell into arrears of revenue and after an unsuccessful attempt to resist the British forces fled to Bundelkhand for safety. The attempt by the Company to manage the estate proved, however, a complete failure; and the Company finding that its revenue grew less and less, persuaded Jugal Keshwar Singh to return. They then settled with him parganas Majhawa and Simraon, the remainder of the district being given to his cousins, Sri Kishan Singh and Abdhat Singh and forming the Sheohar Raj. The same two paraganas of Majhawa and Simraon were settled with Bir Keshwar Singh, the son of Jugal Keshwar Singh, at the Decennial Settlement in 1791, which constituted the greater part of the Bettiah Raj Estate. Bir Keshwar Singh played a prominent part in the disputes which led to the Nepalese war, and was succeeded in 1816 by Anand Keshwar Singh on whom Lord William Bentinck conferred the title of Maharaja Bahadur as a reward for services rendered. 

On the death of his successor, Newal Keshwar Singh in 1855, the estate passed to Rajendra Keshwar who, in the words of the Lieutenant-Governor, gave at the time of the Mutiny “praiseworthy aid and support to Government during the whole progress of the rebellion”. The title of Maharaja Bahadur was also given to this Raja and to his son, Harendra Keshwar Singh, the last Maharaja of Bettiah, who was subsequently made K.C.I.E. and died in 1893. He left no children and was succeeded by his senior widow, who died in 1896. The estate, which had been under the management of the Court of Wards since 1897, was also held by the Maharaja’s junior widow’ Maharani Janaki Kuoar who was styled Maharani by courtesy. Her title to the estate was contested on three occasions. Babu Ramnandan Singh and Babu Girijanandan Singh of Sheohar each laid claim to the estate, but their claims were disallowed by the Privy Council in 1902.

The Bettiah Raj palace occupies a large area in the centre of the town. Much of the old palace was removed and large modern additions were made by the Court of Wards. In 1910 at the request of the Maharani the new palace was built after the plan of Graham’s palace in Calcutta. The later history of the district is intimately connected with indigo plantation. Britain used to get supplies of indigo from her American colonies but this ceased after the War of Independence in 1776 as a result of which the colonies became free. This forced the British to fall back upon India for supplies of indigo. Many factories were set up by the Europeans in the indigo-producing areas of Bengal and Bihar. The Bettiah and Ramnagar estates gave leases of land to them for indigo cultivation on rather easy terms.

In the freedom struggle the district played an important role and was among the outstanding districts in the state in regard to national movement. The rise of nationalism in Bettiah in early 20th century is intimately connected with indigo plantation. Raj Kumar Shukla, an ordinary raiyat and indigo cultivator of Champaran met Gandhijii and explained the plight of the cultivators and the atrocities of the planters on the raiyats. Gandhijii came to Champaran in 1917 and listened to the problems of the cultivators and the started the movement known as Champaran Satyagraha Movement to end the oppression of the British indigo planters. By 1918 the long standing misery of the indigo cultivators came to an end and Champaran became the hub of Indian National Freedom Movement and the launch pad of Gandhi’s Satyagraha.

BUDAUN, Uttar Pradesh

Main Attraction: SHAKEEL BADAUNI

Shakeel Badayuni was one of the most popular composers of Urdu Shayri, and Gazals. He was famous Urdu poet, lyricist and songwriter in Hindi films also. He was born on 3rd August 1916 at Mohalla Baido Tola in Budaun. He got his primary education in Urdu, Arabi and Persian at his home from his father Maulla Jamil Ahmad of Shokhta’s family. He passed his Higher Secondary in 1936 from Maston Islamia High School and graduated from Aligarh Muslim University in 1942. In 1946, Shakeel Budauni resigned from his job in supply department, Delhi and joined Kadar Studio in Film Industry at Mumbai as a lyricist. 

He got education of ‘shayari’ from Mohd. Zila-ul-Kadri alias Jam Badauni and Jigari. His main compositions published were ‘Ranaiyan’, ‘Sanmon Hasan’, ‘Rangeeniyan’, ‘Shabistan’, ‘Nagma-e-firdos’, ‘Door koi Gaye’, ‘Shakeel ki Diary’ etc. He actively participated and organised a number of seminars in Urdu, English and Hindi. Shakeel Badauni, the ‘Shayr’ of Urdu gazals was popular as the ‘King of Gazals’. Shakeel Budauni earned respect in film industry as a Film lyricist of Urdu and Hindi songs. Shakeel Budauni passed away on 20th April of 1970 at the age of 54. 

His memorable melodious and heart touching songs are still afresh in the memory of Indian folk, which were provided for unforgettable movies like, Babul, Mela, Aan, Ganga-Jamuna, Didar, Ghunghat, Udan Khatola, Baiju Bawra, Mother India, Mugal-eazam, Chaudhawin ka Chand and Gharana etc.

Brief History

The district is named after its headquarters town Budaun, which is said to be Vedamau of the Mahabharat and Budhmau of the Buddha period. An inscription found near the suburb of the town indicates that it was known as Vodamayuta in the 12th and 13th centuries and in course of time got corrupted to Budaun. But the evidence of ancient coins and other antiquities discovered here shows that some earlier town on the same site existed long before the advent of Muslims in India. With the finding of numerous prehistorically bronze weapons and tools, it is beyond doubt that this region must have been civilized long ago, probably during the Bronze Age or even earlier. 

The earliest known Aryan people, who settled in this region, were Panchals, who were the close allies of the Kurus, as is indicated by the joint name, Kuru Panchala. About the middle of the fourth century B.C. this region was annexed to the Nanda empire of Magadha and after the overthrow of the Nandas a quarter of century later, the district became part of the powerful Maurya Empire. With the downfall of the Mauryas, Sungas established their dynasty which lasted about one hundred years i.e. from 187 B.C. to 75 B.C. After Sungas, the Kanva dynasty wielded power. The history of the region from the end of the Kanva rule to the rise of the Guptas is very obscure.

About the beginning of the first century B.C. a third dynasty came into existence in Panchala which consisted of some fourteen successive rulers, all having names ending in ‘Mitra’ and have hence often designated as the Mitra rulers of Panchala. The beginnings of the second century A.D. Kushanas subjugated Mitra of Panchala and were allowed to live as deodorise. During the fourth century A.D. Gupta once again established imperial unity in India. 

After the downfall of the Guptas in the latter half of the sixth century A.D. the district appears to have come under the domination of the Maukhari Kings of Kannauj and after them under that of the emperor Harsha (606-647 A.D.). After the death of Harsha, the history of the region, as that of the rest of Northern India, spells anarchy and confusion. Sometime in the first half of the ninth century, it came under the sway of the rising power of the Gurjara Pratiharas.

The Pratiharas Empire of Kannauj collapsed under the repeated shocks of terrible onslaughts by Muslims. With the establishment of Rashtrakutas in the region, the prosperity and importance of Budaun grew tremendously and soon it became one of the premier cities of Northern India. There are ruins of an immense fort and a very handsome mosque of imposing size, crowned with a dome, and built in 1223. According to tradition, Badaun was founded about 905, and an inscription, probably of the 12th century, gives a list of twelve Rathor kings reigning at Badaun (called Vodamayuta).

The first authentic historical event connected with it, however, was its capture by Qutb-ud-din Aybak in 1196, after which it became a very important post on the northern frontier of the Delhi Empire. In 1197-98 Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Mohammad Ghori’s governor took possession of the city. Qutb-ud-din Aibak on his accession to the Delhi throne in 1210, appointed Iltutmish as governor of this place. Ghiya-ud-din Balban rode to the throne of Delhi in 1265-66. 

In the very year of his reign Balban was beset with the serious problem of Katehriya uprising in Budaun and Amroha. He suppressed the rebellion in such an exemplary manner that “the blood of the rioters ran in streams, heaps of slain were to be seen near every village and jungle and the stench of the dead reached as far as Ganges.” In the 13th century two of its governors, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, and his son Rukn-ud -din Firuz, attained the imperial throne.

In 1289, Jalal-ud-din Feroz ascended the throne of Delhi and founded the Khilji dynasty. He was succeeded by Ala-ud-din. After the death of Alaud-din nothing is heard about Budaun till the accession of Feroz Tughlaq, the third ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty in 1351. After the death of Firoz, confusion reigned supreme throughout the empire and in 1394 Budaun came in possession of Nusrat Shah, while Mahmud was confined to Delhi throne during the early years of Mahmud’s reign. Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Budaun. In 1571 the town was burnt, and about a hundred years later, under Shah Jahan, the seat of the governorship was transferred to Sahaspur- Bilari.

It is rather surprising that the history of Budaun remains almost obscure throughout the reign of Akbar, more so because, one of the greatest historian of the day, Abdul Qadir Budauni was the native of this place. This may have been either due to the fact that Budaun relapsed into insignificance or no significant event occurred to attract the attention of the chronicler. Abu Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari throws a considerable light on the administration of the district during Akbar’s reign. The foremost change that was brought in this regime was that Budaun lost its status of being the capital of a province and became merely a sirkar in the subah of Delhi. 

The history of Budaun remains obscure for considerable period after the death of Akbar in 1605. During the middle of eighteenth century Hafiz Rahmat Khan, a Rohilla warrior played an important role in the history of this region. He was defeated and killed in 1774 and the whole of Rohilkhand passed into the hands of Shuja-ud-daula. For twenty seven years, Budaun remained in the possession of the rulers of Awadh. But in 1801, the Nawab Vizir of Awadh agreed to surrender Rohilkhand and other territories to the East India Company. Till 1856, the district remained peaceful.

On the eve of freedom struggle of 1857 the people of the district took part in the struggle. The month of May 1858, saw the gradual restoration of order and the British rule. Thereafter, for 50 years the district remained peaceful and made considerable economic progress. The 20th century saw the dawn of nationalism in the country. However, in between the Swadeshi era and the advent of Gandhiji on the political scene, there was no remarkable political happening in the district. 

The beginning of 1920 saw the foundation of the district congress committee and during the same year, the Non-co-operation Movement started by Gandhiji also spread in the district. In 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement was started in Budaun, as in the other parts of the country. During this Movement, more than 600 persons from the district were sent to jail. During Quit India Movement nearly all the local leaders were arrested but their place was continuously filled up by other people. On August 15, 1947 the country achieved its long awaited dream of independence. The district celebrated the Independence Day in the befitting manner.

WEST SIANG, Arunachal Pradesh

Main Attraction: Mechuka Town

Mechuka, also known as Menchukha, is a small town nestled 6,000 feet (1,829 m) above sea level in the Mechuka Valley in West Siang District. Menchukha is situated in a forested valley, surrounded by pine trees and thornbushes. The river Yargyapchu flows in the valley of Menchukha. Mechuka is 180 kilometers northwest of Along and is only 29 kilometres away from Indo-Tibet border.

Menchukha is gradually becoming a popular tourist destination in Arunachal Pradesh due to its scenic beauty, exotic tribes, gentle hills and snow-capped mountains and River Siyom (locally known as Yargyap Chu). The Siom River, which flows through Menchukha also provides a breathtaking view in the valley.

The major tourist attraction here is a 400-year-old Buddhist Monastery, which is located at a hilltop in the westernmost part of Menchukha. Numerous ancient statues can also be found here. Accommodations are available at Tourist lodges and Inspection Bungalow and a few hotels are also coming up to meet the increasing influx of tourists from the country and abroad. The people of Ramo (Adi) tribe have resided in the Menchukha valley since time immemorial in the periphery of Menchukha valley in the villages of Gapo, Pauk, Padusa, Lipusi, Hiri, Purying, Rapum, Charung, Rego and Kart gumjipang, barang gang,shorang dhem.

Brief History

The name of the district is derived from the river Siang a tributary of the river Brahmaputra. 

The villages have their own customary administrative system in the form of traditional village council. The Assam Frontier Regulation, 1945 authorized the village council to settle all civil and criminal matter falling within their jurisdiction. The Dy. Commissioner is invested with the power of a session judge and other administrative officers are invested magisterial powers. The Assam high court holds jurisdiction over the district court. The district administration now is assisted by civil police in maintaining law and order. Matrimonial cases, Property disputes, Inter-village and Inter clan fends continue to engage attention of the administrative officers from circle level to district. 

With the increase of population around the district and sub-division, incidents of crime, such as theft, cheating, assault etc. are on increase. All disputes which attract customary laws are decided with the assistance of the local village council called “KEBANG”, to deal with complicated cases involving interpretation of customary laws, the system of ‘DUGGAR KEBANG’ consist of 5 (five) representatives from nearby Anchal and two representatives from local political interpreters as selected by the Dy. Commissioner, have been evolved. The Adis have a unique democratic heritage. Their institutions like ‘KEBANG, BOGUM, BOKUN’ may be compared with the present day gram panchayat, Anchal samity etc., The influence of KEBANG is still playing a great role in the society with certain modifications.

As regard the composition of the people and their history it may be mentioned that the district is predominantly inhabited by the scheduled tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Adis are the main tribe of the district followed by Mombas, Kambas and Mishmis. The Adis, with its sub groups viz. the Gollong, Boris, Pailebos, Ramos, Bokars etc., accounts for the great majority of the total population.