TIRUNELVELI, Tamil Nadu

Main Attraction: COURTALLAM WATER FALLS

Courtallam waterfalls are located at Tenkasi Taluk of Tirunelveli District. Many seasonal and few perennial rivers such as the Chittar River, the Manimuthar River, the Pachaiyar River and the Tamirabarani River originate in this region. Courtallam has nine waterfalls. They are Peraruvi (main falls), Chitraruvi (small falls), Shenbagadevi falls, Thenaruvi(honey falls), Aintharuvi (five falls), Pazhathotta Aruvi, Pazhaya Courtalla Aruvi (Old Courtallam falls), Puli Aruvi (Tiger Falls) and there is another small falls inside the Government Horticulture Park above Five Falls.

These waterfalls provide an important tourist attraction and there is a famous health resort in Courtallam. The waterfalls flow from a height of 90 metres from top of the hills. The season commences from the month of June and ends in the month of September every year.

Brief History

The history of Tirunelveli was researched by Robert Caldwell (1814 91), a Christian missionary who visited the area. Tirunelveli was under the rule of Pandya kings as their secondary capital; Madurai was the empire's primary capital. The Pandya dynasty in the region dates to several centuries before the Christian era from inscriptions by Ashoka (304 232 BCE) and mention in the Mahavamsa, the Brihat-Samhita and the writings of Megasthenes (350 290 CE). The province came under the rule of Cholas under Rajendra Chola I in 1064 CE; however, it is unclear whether he conquered the region or obtained it voluntarily. Tirunelveli remained under control of the Cholas until the early 13th century, when the second Pandya empire was established with Madurai as its capital.

The Nellaiappar temple was the royal shrine of the later Pandyas during the 13th and 14th centuries, and the city benefited from dams constructed with royal patronage during the period. After the death of Kulasekara Pandian (1268 1308), the region was occupied by Vijayangara rulers and Marava chieftains (Palayakarars, or Poligars) during the 16th century. The Maravars occupied the western foothills and the Telugas, and the Kannadigas settled in the black-soil-rich eastern portion. Tirunelveli was the subsidiary capital of the Madurai Nayaks; under ViswanathaNayak (1529 64), the city was rebuilt about 1560. Inscriptions from the Nellaiappar temple indicate generous contributions to the temple. Nayak rule ended in 1736, and the region was captured by Chanda Sahib (1740 1754), Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan (1725 1764) during the mid-18th century.

In 1743 Nizam-ul-mulk, lieutenant of the Deccan Plateau, displaced most of the Marathas from the region and Tirunelveli came under the rule of the Nawabs of Arcot. The original power lay in the hands of the Polygars, who were originally military chiefs of the Nayaks. The city was the chief commercial town during the Nawab and Nayak era. The city was known as Nellai Cheemai, with Cheemai meaning "a developed foreign town". The Polygars built forts on the hills, had 30,000 troops and waged war among them. In 1755, the British government sent a mission under Major Heron and Mahfuz Khan which restored some order and bestowed the city to Mahfuz Khan. The Poligars waged war against Mahfuz Khan seven miles from Tirunelveli, but were defeated. 

The failure of Mahfuz Khan led the East India Company to send Muhammed Yusuf for help. Khan became ruler, rebelled in 1763 and was hanged in 1764. In 1758, British troops under Colonel Fullarton reduced the Polygar stronghold under Veerapandiya Kattabomman. In 1797, the first Polygar war broke out between the British (under Major Bannerman) and the Polygars (headed by Kattabomman). Some Polygars (such as the head of Ettaiyapuram) aided the British; Kattabomman was defeated and hanged in his home province of Panchalaguruchi. Two years later, another rebellion became known as the Second Polygar War. Panchalankuruchi fell to the British, after stiff resistance. The Carnatic region came under British rule following a treaty with the Nawab of Carnatic.

After acquiring Tirunelveli from the Nawab of Arcot in 1801, the British anglicised its name to "Tinnevelly" and made it the headquarters of Tirunelvelli District. The administrative and military headquarters was located in Palayamkottai (anglicised as "Palankottah"), from which attacks against the Polygars were launched.

KHARGONE (WEST NIMAR), Madhya Pradesh

Main Attraction: KHARGONE – MAHESHWAR

Maheshwar was a glorious city at the dawn of Indian civilization when it was Mahishmati, capital of King Kartivarjun. This temple town on the banks of the river Narmada finds mention in the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata Revived to its ancient position of importance by the Holkar queen Rani Ahilyabai of Indore.

Documented history states that the Holkar ruler, Malhar Rao captured the fort in 1733 and undertook some repairs and reconstructions. When his daughterin-law Ahilya Bai Holkar ascended the throne in 1767, she rebuild the fort as we see it today. The formidable walls of the Maheshwar Fort are pierced with five gates, of which two are more frequently used by the local population.

Brief History

Nothing is known about the origin of the name of Prant Nimar. The name, Nimar, is supposed to have been derived from nim(half), as the prant was supposed to be half way down the course of the Narmada, but in reality it is much nearer the mouth than the source of the river.

The territories now comprised in the district perhaps were in the kingdom of the Haihaya or Kalchuries, whose capital Mahishmati is identified with the town of Maheshwar. From 9th to 12th centuries most of the territories comprised in the district were ruled by the Parmar kings of Dhar as is apparent from inscriptions found at Mandhata and Harsud in Khandwa (East Nimar) district. 

The Mohammedans under Alauddin appeared in the district for the first time in 1294. Later Malik Kafur marched through the region in 1306. In 1370 Feroz Tughlak made over the district round about Khandesh and Nimar to an Arab adventurer. Since Malik Raja Faruki’s time the region became more or less subject to Mohammedan rule. From 1401, most of the district was held by the independent Mohammedan kings of Mandu and by Faruki kings of Burhanpur. Akbar included Nimar in the Subah of Malwa. In Aurangzeb’s days most of the Nimar was included in the Subah of Aurangabad. Towards, the end of 17th century, the Marathas entered the district carrying on their depredation as far as Dharmpuri in Dhar district. 

In 1720 the Moghul emperor granted to the Peshwa, the Chauth and Sardesh Mukhi on the Deccan province, which included Nimar. The death of Aurangzeb resulted in liquidation of imperial authority of Delhi and gradual strengthening of Maratha power over the Malwa region and hence over Nimar. In 1739, the Nizam was forced to agree to grant the complete sovereignty of the territories between the Narmada and Chambal to the Peshwa. This made Peshwa the ruler of the portions of the district north of Narmada. In 1751-52 by arrangement with Ghaziuddin, one of the sons of Nizam ul Mulk, all the southern Nimar was also passed absolutely to the Peshwa and by 1755 it was entirely in the hands of his officers. In 1751 Ramchandra Ballal Bhuskute was in charge of the tract. The district of this time had thirty-two mahals held by the Peshwa. 

Holkar and the Barwani and Dhar chiefs, though nominally it was all under the Peshwa. In 1768 the Holkar mahals (Sendhwa and Nagalwadi) were confiscated but were restored to Ahilyabai in 1769. In 1778 the district passed entirely into the hands of the Holkar, Scindia and the Parmar of Dhar except the Kasrawad Pargana which remained with the Peshwa. The period 1767 to1795, when Ahilyabai aided by her able commander-in-chief, Tukojirao ruled the district, was one of most prosperous periods for the district. Tukojirao also died two years after Ahilyabai and his death proved disastrous to the kingdom of the Holkars, as it gave rise to serious succession disputes between the sons of Tukojirao. Yeswantrao Holkar-I, a son of Tukojirao, emerged with success but the constant wars and raids lead to a fall in his success in the district till the last stage of the treaty of Mandsaur which was signed in January 1818, between the British and Malhar Rao Holkar. 

Group of Pindaries and the armies of Holkar and Scindia swept through the district and devastated the field and drove away its inhabitants. By this treaty, Mandleshwar, Kasrawad and some other portions of the district were passed on to the British. In 1823, by the treaty of Gwalior, the parts of the district held by Scindia were also placed under British management. The district (including the present East Nimar) under the British had its headquarters at Mandleshwar. Till 1947 the district (with the exception of most of the present Barwani and Rajpur tahsils and a small pocket in Maheshwar tahsil that was held by Dewas remained in the domain of the Holkars.

The district lies in a tract which has always been, historically important for its being on the easiest natural route that connects the northern and the southern parts of India. Most parts of the district were included, at different times, in the kingdoms of the early Haihayas of Mahishmati (now supposed by the most scholars as Maheshwar) the Parmars of Malwa and the Ahirs, Farukis and Chauhans of Asirgarh. Akbar in the subah of Malwa included Nimar, its territories being divided among the three sarkars of Bijagarh, Handia and Mandu. The greater part of the district lay in the Bijagarh Sarkar, the administrative headquarters being at the town of Jalalabad .In 1778, the Peshwa’s territory in Nimar roughly corresponding to the old Moghul Mahal of Banswa or Basina was sub-divided and bestowed by the Peshwa in jagir on the Maratha leaders Holkar, Scindhia and Pawar of Dhar except the tracts of Kasrawad, Kanapur and Beria (Beria Pargana).

PASHCHIM CHAMPARAN, Bihar

Main Attraction: VALMIKINAGAR

Formally known as BHAINSA LOTAN, it is a famous tourist spot where a dam is built on the river Gandak (Gandak Project). This dam and its channels are the lifeline of north-western part of Bihar. This channel also irrigates some portions of eastern U.P. This dam is also generating hydroelectricity.

This dam has been handed over to the nation by late Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru the then Prime Minister. For any tourist interested in exploring natural beauty, a visit to the sylvan surroundings of Valmilki Nagar is a must, where the gushing streams of Gandak break the ascetic calm of the Himalayan foothills.

Brief History

The name Champaran is a degenerate form of Champaka aranya, a name which dates back to the time when the district was a tract of the forest of Champa (Magnolia) trees & was the abode of solitary asectics.The whole district is dotted with places held in religious esteem as the traditional abodes of Hindu rishis, such as valmiki, in whose hermitage Sita, the banished spouse of Rama, is said to have taken shelter. 

This great sage is reputed to have resided near Sangrampur, and the village is believed to be indebted for its name (which means the city of the battle) to the famous fight between Rama and his two sons, Lava and Kusha. There is also a popular belief that within this district lay the kingdom of Virat mentioned in the Mahabharat as the tract within which the Pandavas spent the last year of their weary 12 years’ exile; and that its capital, where the five brothers resided a year, was situated at or near a village called Vairati, or Bairati 9 or 10 kms. west of Ramnagar.

Apart from these traditions, it seems probable that Champaran was occupied at an early period by races of Aryan descent and formed part of the country in which the Videhas has settled after their migration from the Punjab. According to the legend preserved in Vedic literature, Agni the God of fire, accompanied the Videhas in their march eastwards from the banks of the Saraswati, and when they came to the broad stream of the Gandak, they cleared the forest, cultivated the virgin soil and founded a great and powerful kingdom. This kingdom was in course of time ruled over by king Janaka, who is said by local legend to have lived at Chankigarh, known locally as Jankigarh, 17 kilometres north of Lauriya Nandangarh. Under his rule, according to the Hindu mythology, the kingdom of Mithila was the most civilised kingdom in India. King Janak, himself was a scholar and author of Upanishads, and his chief priest, Yajnavalkya was the renowned codifier of the Hindu law. 

After the decline of the Videha empire, the district formed part of the Vrijjian oligarchical republic with its capital at Vaishali. The Lichchhavis were the most prominent of the clans which constituted the Vrijjian confederation. Ajatshatru the emperor of Magadh succeeded in subduing the Licchhhavis and occupying their capital at Vaishali. He extended his sovereignty over the present district of Paschim Champaran which continued under the Mauryan rule for the next hundred years. Ashoka’s pillars have been found at Lauriya (Nandangarh). After the Mauryas, the Sungas and Kanvas ruled over Magadh and its territories. Archaeological evidences pointing to the influence of the Sunga and Kanva culture which have been found in the district.

The district thereafter formed part of the Kushan Empire and later came under the Gutpa Empire, though not much is known about the material culture of the district in that age. Alongwith Tirhut, the district was possibly annexed by Harsha during whose reign Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim visited India.

The history of the district during the medieval period and the British period is linked with the history of Bettiah Raj.

The District Gazetteer mentions the Bettiah Raj as a great estate. It traces its descent from one Ujjain Singh and his son, Gaj Singh who received the title of Raja from the Emperor Shah Jehan (1628-58). The family came into prominence in the 18th century during the time of the downfall of the Mughal Empire when one finds frequent references made by Muhammadan historians to the Rajas of Bettiah as independent chiefs. Thus, in the Riyazus-Salatin, the Raja is described as a refractory and turbulent chief, whose territory had never acknowledged the dominion of any of the Subahdars. 

In order to subdue this chief Ali Vardi Khan led an expedition against him in 1729, and brought him and his territory under subjugation. Subsequently, in 1748, the Raja seems to have entered into an alliance with the Afghan rebel chief of Darbhanga and given shelter to the members of his family during their revolt against the Bengal Viceroy; when the Afghans were defeated by Ali vardi Khan, he offered to atone for his contumacy with a contribution of 3 lakhs of rupees. In 1759 Caillaud advanced against the fort of Bettiah, and compelled the Raja to submit; in 1762 another expedition was sent against him by Mir Kasim Ali Khan and his fort was again captured; and in 1766 a third expedition under Sir Robert Barker became necessary to establish British authority.

At the time when Sarkar Champaran passed under British rule, it was in the possession of Raja Jugal Keshwar Singh, who succeeded Raja Dhurup Singh in 1763. This Raja soon came in conflict with the East India Company. He fell into arrears of revenue and after an unsuccessful attempt to resist the British forces fled to Bundelkhand for safety. The attempt by the Company to manage the estate proved, however, a complete failure; and the Company finding that its revenue grew less and less, persuaded Jugal Keshwar Singh to return. They then settled with him parganas Majhawa and Simraon, the remainder of the district being given to his cousins, Sri Kishan Singh and Abdhat Singh and forming the Sheohar Raj. The same two paraganas of Majhawa and Simraon were settled with Bir Keshwar Singh, the son of Jugal Keshwar Singh, at the Decennial Settlement in 1791, which constituted the greater part of the Bettiah Raj Estate. Bir Keshwar Singh played a prominent part in the disputes which led to the Nepalese war, and was succeeded in 1816 by Anand Keshwar Singh on whom Lord William Bentinck conferred the title of Maharaja Bahadur as a reward for services rendered. 

On the death of his successor, Newal Keshwar Singh in 1855, the estate passed to Rajendra Keshwar who, in the words of the Lieutenant-Governor, gave at the time of the Mutiny “praiseworthy aid and support to Government during the whole progress of the rebellion”. The title of Maharaja Bahadur was also given to this Raja and to his son, Harendra Keshwar Singh, the last Maharaja of Bettiah, who was subsequently made K.C.I.E. and died in 1893. He left no children and was succeeded by his senior widow, who died in 1896. The estate, which had been under the management of the Court of Wards since 1897, was also held by the Maharaja’s junior widow’ Maharani Janaki Kuoar who was styled Maharani by courtesy. Her title to the estate was contested on three occasions. Babu Ramnandan Singh and Babu Girijanandan Singh of Sheohar each laid claim to the estate, but their claims were disallowed by the Privy Council in 1902.

The Bettiah Raj palace occupies a large area in the centre of the town. Much of the old palace was removed and large modern additions were made by the Court of Wards. In 1910 at the request of the Maharani the new palace was built after the plan of Graham’s palace in Calcutta. The later history of the district is intimately connected with indigo plantation. Britain used to get supplies of indigo from her American colonies but this ceased after the War of Independence in 1776 as a result of which the colonies became free. This forced the British to fall back upon India for supplies of indigo. Many factories were set up by the Europeans in the indigo-producing areas of Bengal and Bihar. The Bettiah and Ramnagar estates gave leases of land to them for indigo cultivation on rather easy terms.

In the freedom struggle the district played an important role and was among the outstanding districts in the state in regard to national movement. The rise of nationalism in Bettiah in early 20th century is intimately connected with indigo plantation. Raj Kumar Shukla, an ordinary raiyat and indigo cultivator of Champaran met Gandhijii and explained the plight of the cultivators and the atrocities of the planters on the raiyats. Gandhijii came to Champaran in 1917 and listened to the problems of the cultivators and the started the movement known as Champaran Satyagraha Movement to end the oppression of the British indigo planters. By 1918 the long standing misery of the indigo cultivators came to an end and Champaran became the hub of Indian National Freedom Movement and the launch pad of Gandhi’s Satyagraha.

BUDAUN, Uttar Pradesh

Main Attraction: SHAKEEL BADAUNI

Shakeel Badayuni was one of the most popular composers of Urdu Shayri, and Gazals. He was famous Urdu poet, lyricist and songwriter in Hindi films also. He was born on 3rd August 1916 at Mohalla Baido Tola in Budaun. He got his primary education in Urdu, Arabi and Persian at his home from his father Maulla Jamil Ahmad of Shokhta’s family. He passed his Higher Secondary in 1936 from Maston Islamia High School and graduated from Aligarh Muslim University in 1942. In 1946, Shakeel Budauni resigned from his job in supply department, Delhi and joined Kadar Studio in Film Industry at Mumbai as a lyricist. 

He got education of ‘shayari’ from Mohd. Zila-ul-Kadri alias Jam Badauni and Jigari. His main compositions published were ‘Ranaiyan’, ‘Sanmon Hasan’, ‘Rangeeniyan’, ‘Shabistan’, ‘Nagma-e-firdos’, ‘Door koi Gaye’, ‘Shakeel ki Diary’ etc. He actively participated and organised a number of seminars in Urdu, English and Hindi. Shakeel Badauni, the ‘Shayr’ of Urdu gazals was popular as the ‘King of Gazals’. Shakeel Budauni earned respect in film industry as a Film lyricist of Urdu and Hindi songs. Shakeel Budauni passed away on 20th April of 1970 at the age of 54. 

His memorable melodious and heart touching songs are still afresh in the memory of Indian folk, which were provided for unforgettable movies like, Babul, Mela, Aan, Ganga-Jamuna, Didar, Ghunghat, Udan Khatola, Baiju Bawra, Mother India, Mugal-eazam, Chaudhawin ka Chand and Gharana etc.

Brief History

The district is named after its headquarters town Budaun, which is said to be Vedamau of the Mahabharat and Budhmau of the Buddha period. An inscription found near the suburb of the town indicates that it was known as Vodamayuta in the 12th and 13th centuries and in course of time got corrupted to Budaun. But the evidence of ancient coins and other antiquities discovered here shows that some earlier town on the same site existed long before the advent of Muslims in India. With the finding of numerous prehistorically bronze weapons and tools, it is beyond doubt that this region must have been civilized long ago, probably during the Bronze Age or even earlier. 

The earliest known Aryan people, who settled in this region, were Panchals, who were the close allies of the Kurus, as is indicated by the joint name, Kuru Panchala. About the middle of the fourth century B.C. this region was annexed to the Nanda empire of Magadha and after the overthrow of the Nandas a quarter of century later, the district became part of the powerful Maurya Empire. With the downfall of the Mauryas, Sungas established their dynasty which lasted about one hundred years i.e. from 187 B.C. to 75 B.C. After Sungas, the Kanva dynasty wielded power. The history of the region from the end of the Kanva rule to the rise of the Guptas is very obscure.

About the beginning of the first century B.C. a third dynasty came into existence in Panchala which consisted of some fourteen successive rulers, all having names ending in ‘Mitra’ and have hence often designated as the Mitra rulers of Panchala. The beginnings of the second century A.D. Kushanas subjugated Mitra of Panchala and were allowed to live as deodorise. During the fourth century A.D. Gupta once again established imperial unity in India. 

After the downfall of the Guptas in the latter half of the sixth century A.D. the district appears to have come under the domination of the Maukhari Kings of Kannauj and after them under that of the emperor Harsha (606-647 A.D.). After the death of Harsha, the history of the region, as that of the rest of Northern India, spells anarchy and confusion. Sometime in the first half of the ninth century, it came under the sway of the rising power of the Gurjara Pratiharas.

The Pratiharas Empire of Kannauj collapsed under the repeated shocks of terrible onslaughts by Muslims. With the establishment of Rashtrakutas in the region, the prosperity and importance of Budaun grew tremendously and soon it became one of the premier cities of Northern India. There are ruins of an immense fort and a very handsome mosque of imposing size, crowned with a dome, and built in 1223. According to tradition, Badaun was founded about 905, and an inscription, probably of the 12th century, gives a list of twelve Rathor kings reigning at Badaun (called Vodamayuta).

The first authentic historical event connected with it, however, was its capture by Qutb-ud-din Aybak in 1196, after which it became a very important post on the northern frontier of the Delhi Empire. In 1197-98 Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Mohammad Ghori’s governor took possession of the city. Qutb-ud-din Aibak on his accession to the Delhi throne in 1210, appointed Iltutmish as governor of this place. Ghiya-ud-din Balban rode to the throne of Delhi in 1265-66. 

In the very year of his reign Balban was beset with the serious problem of Katehriya uprising in Budaun and Amroha. He suppressed the rebellion in such an exemplary manner that “the blood of the rioters ran in streams, heaps of slain were to be seen near every village and jungle and the stench of the dead reached as far as Ganges.” In the 13th century two of its governors, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, and his son Rukn-ud -din Firuz, attained the imperial throne.

In 1289, Jalal-ud-din Feroz ascended the throne of Delhi and founded the Khilji dynasty. He was succeeded by Ala-ud-din. After the death of Alaud-din nothing is heard about Budaun till the accession of Feroz Tughlaq, the third ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty in 1351. After the death of Firoz, confusion reigned supreme throughout the empire and in 1394 Budaun came in possession of Nusrat Shah, while Mahmud was confined to Delhi throne during the early years of Mahmud’s reign. Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Budaun. In 1571 the town was burnt, and about a hundred years later, under Shah Jahan, the seat of the governorship was transferred to Sahaspur- Bilari.

It is rather surprising that the history of Budaun remains almost obscure throughout the reign of Akbar, more so because, one of the greatest historian of the day, Abdul Qadir Budauni was the native of this place. This may have been either due to the fact that Budaun relapsed into insignificance or no significant event occurred to attract the attention of the chronicler. Abu Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari throws a considerable light on the administration of the district during Akbar’s reign. The foremost change that was brought in this regime was that Budaun lost its status of being the capital of a province and became merely a sirkar in the subah of Delhi. 

The history of Budaun remains obscure for considerable period after the death of Akbar in 1605. During the middle of eighteenth century Hafiz Rahmat Khan, a Rohilla warrior played an important role in the history of this region. He was defeated and killed in 1774 and the whole of Rohilkhand passed into the hands of Shuja-ud-daula. For twenty seven years, Budaun remained in the possession of the rulers of Awadh. But in 1801, the Nawab Vizir of Awadh agreed to surrender Rohilkhand and other territories to the East India Company. Till 1856, the district remained peaceful.

On the eve of freedom struggle of 1857 the people of the district took part in the struggle. The month of May 1858, saw the gradual restoration of order and the British rule. Thereafter, for 50 years the district remained peaceful and made considerable economic progress. The 20th century saw the dawn of nationalism in the country. However, in between the Swadeshi era and the advent of Gandhiji on the political scene, there was no remarkable political happening in the district. 

The beginning of 1920 saw the foundation of the district congress committee and during the same year, the Non-co-operation Movement started by Gandhiji also spread in the district. In 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement was started in Budaun, as in the other parts of the country. During this Movement, more than 600 persons from the district were sent to jail. During Quit India Movement nearly all the local leaders were arrested but their place was continuously filled up by other people. On August 15, 1947 the country achieved its long awaited dream of independence. The district celebrated the Independence Day in the befitting manner.

WEST SIANG, Arunachal Pradesh

Main Attraction: Mechuka Town

Mechuka, also known as Menchukha, is a small town nestled 6,000 feet (1,829 m) above sea level in the Mechuka Valley in West Siang District. Menchukha is situated in a forested valley, surrounded by pine trees and thornbushes. The river Yargyapchu flows in the valley of Menchukha. Mechuka is 180 kilometers northwest of Along and is only 29 kilometres away from Indo-Tibet border.

Menchukha is gradually becoming a popular tourist destination in Arunachal Pradesh due to its scenic beauty, exotic tribes, gentle hills and snow-capped mountains and River Siyom (locally known as Yargyap Chu). The Siom River, which flows through Menchukha also provides a breathtaking view in the valley.

The major tourist attraction here is a 400-year-old Buddhist Monastery, which is located at a hilltop in the westernmost part of Menchukha. Numerous ancient statues can also be found here. Accommodations are available at Tourist lodges and Inspection Bungalow and a few hotels are also coming up to meet the increasing influx of tourists from the country and abroad. The people of Ramo (Adi) tribe have resided in the Menchukha valley since time immemorial in the periphery of Menchukha valley in the villages of Gapo, Pauk, Padusa, Lipusi, Hiri, Purying, Rapum, Charung, Rego and Kart gumjipang, barang gang,shorang dhem.

Brief History

The name of the district is derived from the river Siang a tributary of the river Brahmaputra. 

The villages have their own customary administrative system in the form of traditional village council. The Assam Frontier Regulation, 1945 authorized the village council to settle all civil and criminal matter falling within their jurisdiction. The Dy. Commissioner is invested with the power of a session judge and other administrative officers are invested magisterial powers. The Assam high court holds jurisdiction over the district court. The district administration now is assisted by civil police in maintaining law and order. Matrimonial cases, Property disputes, Inter-village and Inter clan fends continue to engage attention of the administrative officers from circle level to district. 

With the increase of population around the district and sub-division, incidents of crime, such as theft, cheating, assault etc. are on increase. All disputes which attract customary laws are decided with the assistance of the local village council called “KEBANG”, to deal with complicated cases involving interpretation of customary laws, the system of ‘DUGGAR KEBANG’ consist of 5 (five) representatives from nearby Anchal and two representatives from local political interpreters as selected by the Dy. Commissioner, have been evolved. The Adis have a unique democratic heritage. Their institutions like ‘KEBANG, BOGUM, BOKUN’ may be compared with the present day gram panchayat, Anchal samity etc., The influence of KEBANG is still playing a great role in the society with certain modifications.

As regard the composition of the people and their history it may be mentioned that the district is predominantly inhabited by the scheduled tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Adis are the main tribe of the district followed by Mombas, Kambas and Mishmis. The Adis, with its sub groups viz. the Gollong, Boris, Pailebos, Ramos, Bokars etc., accounts for the great majority of the total population.

WEST GARO HILLS, Meghalaya

Main Attraction: Nokrek National Park

The Nokrek National Park is about 45 kms via Asananggre and Sasatgrefrom Tura, the district headquartersbut just about 2 kms from Tura Peak in West Garo Hills. Nokrek is the highest peak in Garo Hills and has been declared a National Biosphere under the control and management of the state forest department. The peak is teeming with very rare plants and animals deep inside the thick jungle. 

The park is also home to a very rare species of citrus-indica endemic to this place which the locals call me.mangnarang which when literally translated means the ‘orange of the spirits’. This discovery led to the establishment of the National Citrus Gene Sanctuary-cum-Biosphere Reserve at Nokrek which covers an area of about 47 sqkm.

Almost all of the important rivers and streams of the Garo Hills region originates from the Nokrek range, of which the Simsang river known as Someshwari when it enters Bangladesh at Baghmara is the most magnificent and most prominent. Abundant wildlife including herds of wild elephants, animal species like leopard, pangolin, hoolock gibbon, python, hornbill, besides rare orchids abound in the sanctuary.

Brief History

Origin of the name

The name of the West Garo Hills district is derived from the Garo tribe, the predominant inhabitants of the district. The inhabitants of the composite Garo Hills have long been known to outsiders as the Garos. The origin and the meaning of the word ‘Garo‘ are still a matter of conjecture. The name ‘Garo’ is not used by the Garos who, infact, call themselves by the name ‘A.chik’.

According to Major Playfair, the name ‘ Garos’ could have been derived from the name of one division of the tribe, the ‘Gara’ or ‘Ganching’ who live in an area now falls under South Garo Hills District near the Mymensingh District of Bangladesh and with whom the people of Bengal, subsequently the British, first came into contact. In the earliest references in British records, the name ‘Garrow’ was applied to all the native tribes of west of Jaintia Hills including the Khasis.

History

The entire area under Garo Hills was organized as a single administrative district in 1873 in consequence of unsettled conditions prevailing particularly in the hill tracts. When the British took over the administration of Bengal in the middle of the 18th century, they inherited problems that had persisted throughout the administration of the territory adjoining the Garo Hills by tributary Zamindars or landholders under the Mughals. These Zamindars owned markets near the foothills which were regularly frequented by the Garo Highlanders.

Occasionally, their attitude towards the hillmen was such that conflicts, though on minor scales, were inevitable. On the other hand, the Garos, too, were in the habit of sending out raiding parties to the plains and as a punitive measure, the markets would be banned to them. In 1775, the Zamindars of Mechpara and Karaibari in Goalpara launched punitive expeditions and even penetrated into the interior with a view to bringing the whole tribe under their control, but they were unable to stay for more than two or three years. The British sought to bring the situation under control by a series of measures, but during a period of nine years between 1807 and 1817, the Garos made several incursions into the plains in the course of which as many as 157 villages were burnt down and 181 persons were killed, 91 of them in the worst raids of all in 1816, when 150 villages were destroyed.

A change in policy was brought into effect with appointment of David Scott as Magistrate of Rangpur. This illustrious officer would later play a very important part in the events that would ultimately bring the whole of Assam under British rule. Scott imposed the usual punitive measures including an economic blockade but he also saw that the roots of the troubles went deeper than appeared on the surface. He recommended a change in the Regulations that had hitherto guided the administration of the region, proposing that the Garos should be excluded from the control of the Zamindars and be brought under the direct management of the British authorities. 

Bengal Regularion Act was passed on 19th September 1822, and in the words of the Preamble, the objective was “and towards this end recommended that a special plan for the administration of justice, of a kind adapted to their peculiar customs and prejudices, should be arranged and concerted with the headmen and that measures should at the same time be taken for freeing them from any dependence on the Zamindars of the British Provinces. The latter would, however, be paid just compensation.”

Initially, the new provisions affected only the Garos in the area contiguous to Goalpara. In time, however, raids by the tribesmen in the administered areas into British territory in Assam led to the progressive annexation of independence for villages. Till by 1867, a sufficiently large portion of the Garo Hills had come under British rule, and a separate officer was appointed to administer the Hills. In 1866, the Garo Hills was constituted as a separate administrative unit and Lieutenant W.J. Williamson was posted as Assistant Commissioner on 12th July, 1866. 

Tura was established as the administrative headquarters in 1867. In 1867, the Garo Hills became a separate district and Captain Williamson who had by then been promoted was appointed as first Deputy Commissioner of the unified district. Subsequently, the Act of 1869 superseded the Bengal Regulation Act of 1822 in respect of the entire territory bounded on the north and west by the district of Goalpara, on the south by the district of Mymensigh and on the east by the Khasi Hills. It, well within the hills, contributed to the ensuing period of peace which endured for some years. When, however, the British Government proposed a survey of the Garo Hills in 1870, misunderstanding with the independent Garos was inevitable. The operation during the working season of 1870 passed off but, in 1871, the reaction of the Garos was definitely hostile. 

The survey party, prior to commencing its operations, sent two of its field labourers to collect labourers from two villages in the vicinity of Meminram Hills on which it was intended to set up a station. But, the labourers were attacked and seized. One was killed and the other escaped. A punitive expedition could not immediately be mounted because of the approach of the rainy season, but in the following cold season, several columns of soldiers were sent to bring all the remaining independent villages under British subjugation. In December, 1872, the British forces faced the last major resistance from independent Garos at Chisobibra near Rongrenggre where the Garo warriors were killed and brought the entire Garo Hills under British control.

SHIMLA, Himachal Pradesh

Main Attraction: An ode to the queen of hills

Shimla, Simla of the Raj, has an interesting past. This Shimmering jewel developed from small hill village named ‘ Shumlah or Shymla’. Captain Aledander Gerard wrote in 1817, “Simla” middling. Sized village where a fakir is stationed to give water to travellers. “This is said to be the first definite mention of Simla.The land where Shimla now stands was acquired form Maharaja of Patiala and Rana of Keonthal for the British government. “It is impossible that Shimla and its sublimity can ever be effaced from our minds”, wrote Sir William Loyd. 

Gradually the town rose in importance and by 1876 it had hundreds of houses built of wood and stone. These were “dispersed amongst the forests of oaks and firs along the crests of different mountain regions”.With the struggle for independence gaining momentum Shimla saw hectic political activity. All prominent national leaders including Mahatma Gandhi, JawaharLal Nehru, LalaLajpatRai, Sardar Patel and PanditMadan Mohan Malviya visited Shimla during this time.

Today Shimla is a popular tourist destination. It has a unique appeal which sets Shimla apart. The Summer Festival of Shimla has over the years acquired a distinct character of its own. Just like the balls and fete at Annadale ground during the Raj. Shimla summer Festival celebrates the spirit of this lively city. The famous artists of music industry like legendary Mohammad Rafi, Kishor Kumar, Manna Dey, Mukesh have entertained audience at the Ridge. It is a heartfelt desire of all the artists associated with music industry to perform at the Ridge, Shimla

Brief History

The present Shimla district comprises of the 19 small erstwhile Shimla Hill States which were merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1948 and constituted part of theMahasu district. Apart from these states, the hilly areas of erstwhile Patiala State and areas ofKotkhai, Kotgarh, Shimla town and Jutogh Cantonment of the provincial government were also included in the district after independence at different stages. 

Almost all the erstwhile princely states of Shimla district were subjected to the Gorkha invasions during the beginning of the 19th Century and thery were free in the year 1815 when the Gorkha were defeated by the Britishers and driven out to Nepal. Consequently the areas belonging to the respective rulers were restored to them under specific terms. As all the states were of small size both in terms of area and population, these remained under the direct control of the then Superintendent of Punjab Hills States. These rulers were free in the internal affairs of their states. Almost all the states were founded by the adventurists from plains after the 8th century A.D.

Shimla district derives its name from Shimla Town which was once a very small village inhabited by the Charcoal manufactures. The panoramic view commanded by the place attracted the attention of theBritishers who had set their hold on the country and gradually the village was developed considerably. The surroundings were equally developed from military point of view. The climatic conditions which resembled with those prevailing in the native country of the Britishers aroused their ambition to make it summer capital. 

It became the formal seat of the summer capital of the Government of India in 1864 when Lord Lawrance came to the town along with the members of Supreme Council and all the public offices. The Punjab Government first went to Shimla in 1871 but from 1876 onwards it remained their summer capital till 1947 and after the partition of Punjab it served the headquarters of Punjab Govt. till its offices moved to Chandigarh. In the 19th century the place became very famous due to the summer capital of the Government of India.

In other version as mentioned in the Book namely “Simla Past and Present” by Mr. Long Whom and “Shimla Guide of 1870” by Mr. W.H. Garey, Shimla derives its name from “Shyeamalay” the house built of blue slate erected by a Fakir on Jakkhoo, the first nucleus of the settlement. But this derivation is regarded by many people as fanciful and far- fetched and probably Shimlah or ‘Shumlah’ as pronounced by the hill people, is the actual word from which the station takes its present name, Shimla, a middle sized village where a Fakir used to give water to travellers. 

The original village of Shimla was situated on the ground lying to the east of the then Secretariat building above the road leading to the Ripon Hospital and immediately below the Roman Catholic Chapel, S.Michael’s school and the cantt. House and the detached portion inhabited entirely by Charcoal burners just over the spur still further east, immediately below the spot where the Muhammadan Masque now stands.

According to the gazettierof 1904, the land forming the Pargana and the present station of Shimla originally belongedcojointly to the Maharaja of Patiala and Rana of Keonthal. As early as 1824 European gentleman, Chiefely arrived from the plains, had, with permission of these Chiefs established themselves in this locality, building houses on sites granted to them rent free and with no other stipulation except that they should refrain from the slaughter of Kite, and from the felling of trees unless with previous permission of the proprietors of the land. Gradually the place became favourably known as aSanitorium and in 1830 the Government directed that negotiations should be entered into with the Chiefs of Patiala and Keonthalfor the acquisition of land; sufficient to form a station. Accordingly Major Kennedy, the political Agent, negotiated an exchange with the Rana of Keonthal for this portion of the Shimla hills, comprising the 12 villages noted as below and yielding an estimated annual Revenue of Rupees 987 making over to the Rana of the Pargana: 1. Panjar, 2. Phagli, 3. Bammoloi, 4. Kanhlog, 5. Sabarrbar, 6. Dalhi, 7. Pagaway, 8. Kalhian, 9. Dabaria, 10. Kiar, 11. Dhar, 12. Khilini.

The ParganaRawin yielding annual revenue of Rs. 1289 which on the first conquest of these hills had been retained by Britishers as a good military position. A portion of the retained Pargana of Bharauli, consisting of the three villages named Dhanoti, Kalwan and Dharoi was at the same time made over to the Maharaja of Patiala in exchange for the portion of Shimla included in the territory which consisted of four villages named Kaithu, Baghog, Chuog and Aindari yielding estimated Revenue of

Rs. 245 per annum.

Shimla became the part of Himachal Pradesh on 1st November, 1966 due to reorganisation of Punjab state. 

People

The population of the district mainly consists of Hindus followed by Sikhs, Mohammedans while other religions like Christians, Jains and Buddhists constitute microscopic minority. The Hindus population is chiefly composed of Brahmins, Rajputs and Kanets. The other section of the people consists of Kolis, Lohars, Chamars, Badhis, Chanals, Julaha, Dumne and Rehars which are Scheduled Castes. Apart from these people, Gujjars’s community is also found in this district and they resides in high ridges/hills alongwith their animals like buffaloes, cows w.e.f. April to August. In winter season they start to come down from high hills and migrate to lower areas of Uttaranchal and stay there up to middle of March every year. This is also called a nomadic Scheduled Tribes community.

The Brahmins are of two classes Sasani and Dharebar. The Sasanis are generally muafidars and are of distinctly higher class than the Dharebar. They would marry Dharebar women but will not give their own daughter in marriage to them. The other group of Brahmins are Bhat, Panda, Acharaj and Mahacharaj or Bedwa.

The Rajputs form rather a ruling class than a caste and comprises of the families of the erstwhile hill chiefs. One category of the Rajputs who were the rulers of the yester years do not give their daughters in marriage to the Khash, Mian or Other Rajputs. The other categories of Thakur and MianRajputs hesitate to give their daughters to the Khash or Kanet. The Khash or Kanets are mainly agriculturists.

In Scheduled Castes Community, people of Koli caste are in majority among others. In general reality people of all communities in the district are god fearing and they mostly believe on its local ‘Devta’. In other side with the passage of time, spread of education and changed economic condition, the rigid customs of the past are fading away gradually. The different class of the Scheduled Castes do not enter into matrimonial alliances with each other. The Christians are of both the type of Protestants and Roman Catholics

Language

Language of district people is mainly Pahari consisting of various dialects which is spoken by the villagers except in urban areas. With the spread of communication, education and increase in the literacy rate among the masses of district, a major portion of the people in rural and urban areas are turning to Hindi instead of Pahari. However people of district can speak in Hindi or Pahari frequently.

Food

The staple food of the villagers generally consists of maize, rice and wheat is taken mostly in summer and there after occasionally. In addition, pulses like Urd, Lobia, Moong, Gram and Kolth are used almost daily. Maize which is the main cereals crop grown is favourite and is taken round the year. The people in the villages have four meals a day. Morning meal (Nawari) consists of wheat or maize bread taken either with lassi or tea. The mid-day meal (Chaili or Dopari) consists of maize or wheat chappaties taken with vegetable or dal or curry. In the evening, the morning menu is repeated. 

In the night (Bayali), the rice is taken with dal, with passage of time, now the people of district are taking their meals three times instead of four times. In the morning meal (Nawari) they took Prantha with tea and midday meal (Dopari) consists of Maize or wheat chappaties taken with vegetables or dal or curry (Khairu) etc. At night in the dinner the rice is generally taken with dal (Rajmah, Rongi) People are also very fond of meat with rice and those who can afford they like it in the dinner.

Dress

Cotton as well as woollen clothes are worn by the people. In winter season mostly woollen clothes are used by the people to keep up the body warm because the most of the area of the district falls in cold zone. Ordinary clothes for men consist of cotton Khadior mill made shirt. ‘Pyjama’, cap and jacket. The dress of the women is ‘salwar’, ‘kameej’ and coloured head geer called as Dhattu is commonly used. Jacket is also worn by them in the upper part of the district. 

The traditional dress of men for attending some function consist of black woollen ‘pyjama’, coat, and

‘bushehari’ cap with a coloured band. ‘Loia’ is also put on by most of the people. The women, however, wear ‘Pakhati’, ‘Rezta’, ‘Kameej’, ‘Suttan’ and ‘Dhattu’. Women of the higher altitudes of Rampur tehsil put on woollen cap and ‘Giddi’. The typical dress of the women of Theog, Kotkhai, Jubbal, Rohru and Chaupal tehsil is ‘Salwar’, ‘Kameej’, ‘Sadri’ with yellow or red coloured ‘Dhattu’ as the head gear

Housing and Furniture

Now the district has been made considerable high economic development in last decade w.e.f. 1991-2000 and most of the people have changed their mud houses to pucca houses by adopting new system of construction i.e. concrete pillars, G.I. Sheets for roofing with separate kitchen, cow sheds, bathroom and flush latrine etc. At present people of district are very much aware of sanitation which is necessary for good health. Only in remote areas of the district is have the old system of housing pattern like the ground floor is mainly used for tending cattles and the first floor is used for dwelling & kitchen purposes. The household furniture generally consists of cots and domestically woven mates (mandri/bina) of rice stalks. 

Wooden boxes are being used for keeping valuables and clothes, chairs, tables and modern items of furniture. The olden items are also rarely seen in the villages. However with the spread of education and increase in the standard of living, people have started by keeping modern furniture in their houses like chairs, sofa sets, dressing tables, steel almirahs, bed boxes, deck (music system) coloured television with dish antenna etc. Utensils generally in use are made of brass, bronze, steel and aluminium. Earthen wares of the past have almost been completely replaced by pressure cooker, ‘patila’, glass, ‘lota’, ‘thali’ (plate). In the district 100 per cent of the inhabited villages have the facility of electricity and power. So the people are availing this facility by using table lamp, heater, press, fan, fridge, washing machines. Now the people of district also have the facilities of LPG connection, which is decreasing the pressure on fire wood.

Religion

The religion of the district according to the intelligent hillman is considered as a Hindu of approximate orthodoxy. The popular religion of this district is a primitive form of animism or demon worship which has been overlaid with a thin veneer of Hinduism. Every village has a diety of its own and many have more than one. The district is having number of shrines and temples. Durga Kali temple at Sarahan, Hat Koti, Tara Devi, Shali andSeoni are quite famous. The famous temple of Mahasu at Gijari in tehsil Theog is also unique in architecture. There are many temples where the idols of Shiva, Rama, Krishna and Durga are worshipped simultaneously. 

The temple priests are generally Brahmins. All the ceremonies, rites and rituals are performed according to religion. The religious assignmentsin several respects are most interesting because of their variety and throw the light on the influence of the Brahmins on these rites and rituals. The endowment of the village gods presents the features commonly found in the hills. The temple image almost invariably consist of pind or linga of stone, this probably represents the primitive image. Now a day, the most important outward and visible symbol of the god is his Rath, a term which may be translated as ark, palanquin or litter